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52. Russia-China-North Korea Relations: Obstacles to a Trilateral Axis
- Author:
- Elizabeth Wishnick
- Publication Date:
- 03-2025
- Content Type:
- Special Report
- Institution:
- Foreign Policy Research Institute (FPRI)
- Abstract:
- Russia and China have had diplomatic relations with North Korea and each other for more than 75 years, but Russian and Chinese relations with North Korea could not be more different. North Korea is China’s sole military ally, but—as PRC historian Shen Zhihua has cautioned—since the normalization of ties between Beijing and Seoul, the PRC-North Korea alliance was really just a “scrap of paper.”[1] By contrast, Sino-Russian military ties have been deepening; however, both countries claim they are uninterested in replicating Cold War era alliances and have committed instead to a priority partnership “for the new era.”[2] In June 2024, Russia and North Korea signed a strategic partnership agreement with a mutual defense clause. China’s 1961 treaty with North Korea (renewed most recently in 2021) also contains a mutual defense clause, raising questions about the existence of a trilateral axis. Claims about the existence of such an axis also point to the anti-Western positions these states share and their potential to undertake coordinated action directed against Western interests.[3] Critics of this view argue that there is scant evidence for the existence of such an axis beyond the current (albeit very different) assistance by China and North Korea (plus Iran) for the Russian full-scale war in Ukraine.[4] They also contend that trilateralism will not endure beyond this war.[5] Others argue that such an axis would not be in Chinese interests.[6] What is lacking in this discussion is an understanding of the indicators of a China-Russia-North Korea axis. How do we know if they are choosing to form an axis? Or not? This paper begins by examining the history of Russia-China-North Korea interactions, highlighting Sino-Russian differences in emphasis regarding North Korea prior to the full-scale war in Ukraine. To assess whether a trilateral axis formed after 2022, the paper examines evidence of institutionalized cooperation, coordination of Chinese and North Korean military aid to Russia for Ukraine, and Russian and Chinese expert perspectives. The paper then addresses the obstacles to the formation of a trilateral axis. Although authoritarian states share an overriding interest in regime security and political survival, this does not necessarily mean that we should expect solidarity among similarly disposed regimes or believe that they would inevitably form an anti-Western axis. Considerable research has been done on the reasons why authoritarian states choose to support one another,[7] but it is important to understand what factors might limit their cooperation.[8] This paper examines how the historical experience of trilateralism, reputational concerns, foreign policy considerations, and domestic factors make a new China-Russia-North Korea axis unlikely.
- Topic:
- International Relations, Diplomacy, Regional Politics, and Trilateral Relations
- Political Geography:
- Russia, China, Asia, and North Korea
53. Leveraging the Gaps in Russia and China’s Complex Relations with Iran
- Author:
- Richard Nephew
- Publication Date:
- 03-2025
- Content Type:
- Commentary and Analysis
- Institution:
- The Washington Institute for Near East Policy
- Abstract:
- Far from signaling a strong trilateral alliance, their history of often transactional cooperation reveals strategic gaps that Washington can leverage to help curb Iran’s nuclear ambitions. For all the hoopla that preceded it, the trilateral China-Iran-Russia meeting on Tehran’s nuclear program did not appear to generate anything of great significance. The joint statement issued after the March 15 Beijing gathering largely echoed previous such documents, from condemning “unlawful unilateral sanctions” against Iran to reiterating a mutual desire for a diplomatic solution. That said, the mere act of holding the meeting may have been the objective, to signal to the world that the three countries stand together. This show of unity could have immediate practical effects given the partial expiration of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action in 2025—including the “snapback” provision that permits the UN to reimpose full sanctions on Iran if a JCPOA participant triggers the mechanism. At the same time, the three governments still have diverging historical and strategic interests on a range of issues—differences that will not dissipate just because they hold a joint meeting and share friction with the United States. If Washington hopes to exploit these fault lines, however, it must properly understand them.
- Topic:
- International Relations, Foreign Policy, Diplomacy, Sanctions, and JCPOA
- Political Geography:
- Russia, China, Iran, and Middle East
54. Exploring the relationship between human rights and international relations in the Middle East
- Author:
- Mohammad Al-Rawashdeh
- Publication Date:
- 05-2025
- Content Type:
- Journal Article
- Journal:
- Journal of Political Studies
- Institution:
- Department of Political Science, University of the Punjab
- Abstract:
- Human rights issues in the Middle East are interconnected with the region's international relations, reflecting the unique political systems, cultures, and economies present there. This research aims to analyze the roles of global players and organizations, such as the United Nations and the Arab League, in promoting human rights.The objectives include understanding how these entities have either encouraged or hindered human rights advancements in the region, examining the impact of human rights on foreign policies, and evaluating the effectiveness of diplomatic initiatives and sanctions in addressing civil liberties violations. Given the ongoing conflicts, including the Syrian civil war and the Israeli-Palestinian situation, the research will assess how human rights issues influence international relations. Additionally, it will explore employee rights in Gulf countries and the challenges faced by women and refugees.Using quantitative methods, the study will examine the intersection of diplomacy, sanctions, and global human rights initiatives, seeking to answer how international relations can better address human rights without destabilizing global political systems. Ultimately, the research aims to highlight the significance of human rights in foreign policy and offer recommendations for their integration in the Middle East.
- Topic:
- International Relations, Diplomacy, Human Rights, United Nations, Minorities, and Repression
- Political Geography:
- Middle East
55. The Arctic as an Arena for Strategic Competition: Rivalry with Traditional and Irregular Levers of Power on NATO’s Northern Flank
- Author:
- Njord Wegge
- Publication Date:
- 12-2025
- Content Type:
- Journal Article
- Journal:
- Journal of Advanced Military Studies
- Institution:
- Marine Corps University Press, National Defense University
- Abstract:
- This article investigates to what degree and through which fields and mechanisms strategic competition today plays out in the Arctic as well as how these questions align with international relations (IR) theory. Using rationalist approaches to the study of IR and the DIME model (diplomatic, informational, military, and economic) to structure the empirical investigation, this article finds that the strategic competition matches perspectives found in realism as well as liberalism. The article points out how states develop strategies to maximize security, wealth, power, and prosperity at the cost of others, while at the same time also identifies empirical evidence supporting liberal perspectives that stresses how unintended consequences of competition can be harnessed through institutions and international law. The competitive environment experienced in today’s Arctic increasingly reflects an international society characterized by zero-sum thinking and a dynamic where the constraining role of institutions has diminished.
- Topic:
- International Relations, NATO, Diplomacy, Economics, Strategic Competition, Military, and Information
- Political Geography:
- Arctic
56. Power Shifts and Knowledge Production: India’s Rise and Scholarship in International Relations
- Author:
- Aksel B. Hvid, Fabricio H. Chagas-Bastos, and Peter Marcus Kristensen
- Publication Date:
- 07-2025
- Content Type:
- Journal Article
- Journal:
- All Azimuth: A Journal of Foreign Policy and Peace
- Institution:
- Center for Foreign Policy and Peace Research
- Abstract:
- While much scholarly attention has been paid to the ways in which the rise of powers like China and India may challenge the fundamentals of the world order, there little empirically grounded research on the relationship between the socio-political conditions driving upward power shifts (“risingness”) and knowledge production, particularly outside the Western core of the International Relations discipline. We show in this article that Indian scholars are more likely to portray India as a “rising power” when publishing in mainstream journals than when contributing to Indian journals. Moreover, Indian scholars publishing in mainstream journals often engage with a discourse centred on Western reference points, specifically addressing the future of the liberal international order. By contrast, Indian scholars publishing in Indian journals focus on issues relevant to the South Asian context, frequently emphasising India’s non-Western roots. Finally, while contributions to mainstream journals tend to frame India’s rising status predominantly from a Western, particularly American, perspective, contributions to Indian journals are more deeply rooted in India’s rich intellectual traditions.
- Topic:
- International Relations, Sociology, Knowledge Production, and Rising Powers
- Political Geography:
- South Asia and India
57. The Functioning of Normative Power in the Logic of the EU and China
- Author:
- Emrah Yıldırımçakar
- Publication Date:
- 07-2025
- Content Type:
- Journal Article
- Journal:
- All Azimuth: A Journal of Foreign Policy and Peace
- Institution:
- Center for Foreign Policy and Peace Research
- Abstract:
- Normative power has become a critical topic of discussion in International Relations and Political Science scholarship, particularly in the context of the normative power of the European Union (EU) and China. However, academic attention has been excessively directed toward investigating the normative power of the European Union rather than that of China. Given the EU’s unique status as a supranational and multinational entity consisting of multiple member states, its process of diffusion of normative power differs significantly from that of China. In this context, this study aims to explore and compare the normative power dynamics maintained by the EU and China in the international arena, examine the approaches, strategies, and outcomes of both the EU and China by providing a detailed understanding of how each party implements normative power, and explore the inequalities in normative power acquisition strategies between these two actors.
- Topic:
- International Relations, European Union, Political Science, and Norms
- Political Geography:
- China, Europe, and Asia
58. Spatial Context of Ontological Security in Foreign Policy Analysis: The Case of Türkiye’s Blue Homeland Policy
- Author:
- Yumuşak Güç
- Publication Date:
- 12-2025
- Content Type:
- Journal Article
- Journal:
- Uluslararasi Iliskiler
- Institution:
- International Relations Council of Turkey (UİK-IRCT)
- Abstract:
- The concept of ontological security in foreign policy analysis (FPA) and International Relations highlights that states seek not only physical but also existential security. States, like individuals, aim to perceive themselves as meaningful entities and create stable identities through consistent routines and biographical narratives. These narratives are formed from collective memories and help the state maintain historical continuity and identity. However, FPA studies often overlook the importance of space, a crucial factor emphasized in psychological studies on individual ontological security. Space contributes to feelings of consistency, control, status, autonomy, and identity. This study explores the significance of space for a state’s ontological security in foreign policy, using Türkiye’s “Blue Homeland” (Mavi Vatan) policy as a case study. Türkiye’s ambitious maritime policy, involving activities like natural gas exploration and military exercises, reflects its quest for physical and ontological security. The Blue Homeland policy not only addresses physical security but also Türkiye’s need for ontological security through its discourses, symbols, and narratives. This study aims to introduce the spatial dimension into FPA’s ontological security approach and analyze Türkiye’s Blue Homeland policy through this new lens.
- Topic:
- International Relations, Foreign Policy, Autonomy, and Blue Homeland Policy
- Political Geography:
- Turkey and Middle East
59. NATO’s Quest for Ontological Security: Securitizing Russia in the Arctic
- Author:
- Sevgi BALKAN-ŞAHİN and Özge Çetiner
- Publication Date:
- 12-2025
- Content Type:
- Journal Article
- Journal:
- Uluslararasi Iliskiler
- Institution:
- International Relations Council of Turkey (UİK-IRCT)
- Abstract:
- The article examines how NATO has strategically and symbolically addressed disruptions to its ontological security due to Russia’s military build-up in the Arctic and its aggressions in Ukraine. Based on an engagement between ontological security and securitization perspectives, the article argues that NATO’s intentional and unconscious securitization acts towards Russia have addressed its material threats and ontological anxieties. Demonstrating the intersection of the material and psychological aspects of securitization, it highlights how NATO has engaged in a security-oriented role in the Arctic and constructed Russia as an abject/other to reaffirm its “self” as a united, reliable, and values-driven collective defense alliance. This dual approach has reflected NATO’s reflexivity in balancing strategic and ontological needs to respond to evolving security dynamics. Analyzing NATO’s Summit Declarations, Strategic Concepts, and press releases on the Arctic and Russia, coupled with interviews with NATO officials, the article reveals three major themes the Alliance has used to securitize Russia as a threat: to the “Euro-Atlantic stability”, “the Arctic peace”, and “international law and values”.
- Topic:
- International Relations, NATO, Psychology, Securitization, and Russia-Ukraine War
- Political Geography:
- Russia and Arctic
60. The Italian Job: Navigating between the UK, the EU and Trump
- Author:
- Luca Cinciripini
- Publication Date:
- 05-2025
- Content Type:
- Commentary and Analysis
- Institution:
- Istituto Affari Internazionali
- Abstract:
- Amid the transatlantic rift in the first months of the second Trump administration, Italy and the United Kingdom are seeking to position themselves as ‘transatlantic bridges’, drawing either on long-standing alliances or ideological affinities, to keep channels of dialogue open on shared challenges. However, this balancing act carries significant risks, particularly for Italy. The UK, no longer bound by European Union membership, enjoys greater autonomy in its dealings with the United States, although it risks undermining efforts to reset its relationship with the EU. Rome’s more ambiguous positioning between Washington and Brussels, by contrast, could weaken the EU’s unity at the negotiating table, eroding the coherence of its external action and contributing to internal fragmentation. Ultimately, bilateral initiatives by London and Rome may well serve to reinforce transatlantic cohesion – or to deepen its divisions and weaken the foundations of the EU.
- Topic:
- International Relations, Foreign Policy, Bilateral Relations, European Union, and Transatlantic Relations
- Political Geography:
- United Kingdom, Europe, and Italy