Content Type: Journal Article / Journal: Polish Political Science Yearbook

1. Are International Institutions/Organizations Useful for Maintaining Peace and Harmony? An Analysis in Combination with a Case Study on the Conflict in Ukraine

Author:: Fabian Boettcher
Publication Date:: 03-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: February 24, 2022: Russian forces start the full-scale invasion of Ukraine under the orders of Russian President Putin. Since then, our world has been in turmoil; what seemed certain for years is not certain. After the end of the Second World War, the World Powers established international organizations to prevent that amount of suffering from happening again. Are international organizations useful for maintaining peace? This research essay is going to address the question based on available literature and internet news sources to draw some tangible conclusions and perhaps even to suggest some improvements on how international organizations will be able to stay relevant for global peace in the future. The War in Ukraine will serve as a case study in the essay’s second half. The reader will learn that international organizations have performed well in their functions, that Western nations did things wrong in handling the Ukrainian crisis, and that organizations like NATO got a new drive and purpose courtesy of the Russian aggression. Most importantly, the reader will learn that argumentations on the demise of the liberal world order are premature at best.
Topic:: International Relations, NATO, International Organization, United Nations, European Union, and Russia-Ukraine War
Political Geography:: Russia, Europe, and Ukraine

2. From Wałęsa to Rivlin: An Overview of Challenges and Controversies in Polish-Israeli Relations in the Post-Cold War Period Within a Bi – and Multilateral Dimension

Author:: Justyna Łapaj-Kucharska
Publication Date:: 03-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The centuries-long coexistence of the Polish and Jewish nations gives Polish-Israeli relations specificity and unique character. One can state that there is an emotional bond between these nations, which shaped interstate relations in the post-Cold War period, simultaneously facilitating and hindering their progress. The article reviews the most critical challenges and controversies surrounding building state relations between Poland and Israel after the Cold War. It also analyzed how selected historical events related to the coexistence of the Polish and Jewish nations influenced later Polish-Israeli relations. The work summary included recommendations for further actions to develop interstate relations further. The present research uses investigative methods and techniques in the field of social sciences, such as documentary analysis and review of official statements from politicians, analysis of primary literary sources, the decisional method, secondary analysis of quantitative research, and deduction. Due to the formal constraints of this article, the author has selected the issues that have emerged in Polish-Israeli dialogue within a state context, emphasizing political relations.
Topic:: Foreign Policy, Bilateral Relations, and Post-Cold War
Political Geography:: Europe, Middle East, Israel, Poland, and Palestine

3. The International Community in the Face of Intensified Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon During the Presidency of Jair Bolsonaro

Author:: Anna Sakson-Boulet
Publication Date:: 03-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: Since the 1950s, when the deliberate settlement of the Amazon began, with a rapid influx of people, the Brazilian Amazon has faced various threats because of the demands associated with unsustainable economic development. During the presidency of Jair Bolsonaro, environmental policies were marginalized, including through the legislative and regulatory dismantling of forest protection and the financial sapping of environmental institutions, which favored uncontrolled logging of equatorial forests. Therefore, deforestation increased yearly during the Bolsonaro administration, accompanied by increased greenhouse gas emissions. That is why the article aims to answer the question of what role the international community can play in protecting the Amazon rainforest, given its essential role in regulating the climate regionally and globally. The research methods include formal institutional analysis of relevant legal documents and decision analysis. The research and analysis of states’ individual and collective actions lead to the conclusion that economic pressure has been applied to influence the Bolsonaro administration.
Topic:: Climate Change, International Community, Jair Bolsonaro, and Deforestation
Political Geography:: Brazil, South America, and Amazon Basin

4. The Biden Administration’s New Industrial Policy: Domestic and International Implications

Author:: Barbara Regulska-Ingielewicz
Publication Date:: 03-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The article aims to analyze new industrial policy based on the example of actions taken by the Joe Biden administration. Their essence is transforming the economy in line with climate goals while stimulating development. The paper will present the main assumptions of the United States’ green industrial policy, its goals, and international implications, which indicate that it is characterized by economic nationalism. The article attempts to answer three main research questions: What is the essence of the new industrial policy? What are the goals of the new industrial policy initiated by the Joe Biden administration? What are the expected international implications of this policy? Answers to the above questions will enable verification of the hypothesis, which states that the Joe Biden administration has initiated a new industrial policy in the spirit of state interventionism based on new environmental protection assumptions. Its goal is to give the U.S. economy new pro-development impulses and increase its competitiveness. The first part of the paper will present assumptions of the new industrial policy, then the goals and measures of the new United States industrial policy, and the third part will show the international implications of the above policy.
Topic:: Climate Change, Industrial Policy, Economic Growth, Joe Biden, Green Transition, Green Economy, and Economic Nationalism
Political Geography:: North America and United States of America

5. Ten Years of China’s Belt and Road Initiative in Central Asia: The Critical Assessment and Future Directions

Author:: Elżbieta Proń
Publication Date:: 03-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: This paper looks at how China’s use of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in its policy towards Central Asia (CA) has changed since 2013 and what this change signalizes regarding China’s use of the BRI at international forums. To answer these research questions, the paper focuses on Central Asia – once dubbed “the first strand of the BRI” (R. Pantucci); the region where China has “tested” many institutions of its international engagement; and where the BRI was introduced in 2013. To answer the research questions, this study draws from analyzing literature and sources in Russian, Chinese, English, and Polish. This study is primarily empirically oriented. This study finds that at its 10, the BRI will focus on connectivity, clean energy, and new technologies. It also finds that despite the high profile of the Green BRI and many relevant agreements, only a fraction of projects are branded “Green BRI.” It thus argues that the BRI has served as a legitimizing “umbrella” label for various Chinese policy initiatives, which are realized via other cooperation formats.
Topic:: Economics, Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), Renewable Energy, and Silk Road
Political Geography:: China and Central Asia

6. Indonesia in the Face of the Death Penalty – Hopes Versus Reality

Author:: Maria Ochwat
Publication Date:: 03-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The right to life, without a doubt, is the most essential right of every human being. Protection and respect for this right is a prerequisite for enjoying and realizing other rights guaranteed to the individual. However, it is not an absolute right, but one that, under various circumstances, can be restricted. One such restriction is the death penalty. Many countries have decided to abolish it; however, only three countries in Southeast Asia, namely Cambodia, the Philippines, and East Timor, have decided. While Indonesia guarantees the right to life, it does allow the death penalty. Although the death penalty has not been carried out for several years, the death penalty has been retained in the criminal code, and courts continue to award it. The public (especially the young) is increasingly advocating its complete abolition, but those in power do not seem interested. The death penalty is also left in the new criminal code. This article is about the death penalty in Indonesia. The author also decided to survey Indonesian students to find out their attitudes toward the death penalty.
Topic:: Public Opinion, Prisons/Penal Systems, Death Penalty, and Right to Life
Political Geography:: Indonesia and Southeast Asia

7. Realism in International Trade Relations: Limiting Judicial Activism

Author:: Dmytro Skrynka
Publication Date:: 03-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: he WTO dispute settlement system crisis is an important milestone in the history of international law. Since the realist school in the study of international relations is known for its attention to the limits of the functions of international law, it is quite appropriate to review the key concepts of the realist school relevant to the current crisis. The ambitious endeavor to minimize the use of political methods of dispute settlement in international trade disputes within the institutional system of the WTO has not been quite successful. As postulated by realists, the political processes prevailed over the international legal procedures. In this article, based on the realist approach, the causes of the stalemate of the WTO dispute settlement system are analyzed, and recommendations are presented for remedying the current situation. The comparative analysis method is used for this. The article translates the relevant concepts of international relations by key realists, including the classification of international disputes by Hans Morgenthau, into specific recommendations for resolving the ongoing crisis.
Topic:: International Relations, International Trade and Finance, Realism, Dispute Resolution, and Judicial Activism
Political Geography:: Global Focus

8. The Bay of Bengal Countries’ Domestic and Regional Sources of Maritime Governance Concepts in the 21st Century

Author:: Tomasz Łukaszuk
Publication Date:: 12-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The primary aim of the article is to analyse domestic and regional sources of maritime governance in the Bay of Bengal in the 21st century from a constructivist viewpoint. It offers a comparative examination of domestic and external factors shaping maritime governance in the region, illustrating how Kantian-style anarchy prevails over Hobbesian and Lockean models. The article explores the roots of the maritime culture of sharing, cooperation, and trade in the Bay of Bengal, which stems from Hindu, Buddhist, and Muslim traditions and aligns with the Kantian model. The recognition of the agency of seas and oceans by Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand is analysed within the context of natural disasters and their role in safeguarding the security of the Sea Lanes of Communication. They regard the sea as an integral and objective part of their lives, intertwined with the fabric of maritime societies. Despite the political diversity in the region, domestic and regional factors play a crucial and positive role in shaping maritime policies, fostering confidence in the importance of developing international cooperation in the maritime sector. The article is divided into four sections. The first – introduction – outlines the main ideas, research questions, hypotheses, and the structure of the article. The following section explains the conceptual framework, presenting the constructivist perspective on anarchy in international relations and its relevance to the maritime domain. The third section provides a detailed analysis of regional and domestic influences on the maritime domain and maritime governance concepts in the Bay of Bengal, offering a thorough understanding of the topic. Finally, the article concludes by summarizing all assumptions and addressing the research questions.
Topic:: Security, Governance, Maritime, and Blue Economy
Political Geography:: Bay of Bengal

9. Nile’s Flow of Tensions: The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam and Its Impact on Ethiopian-Sudanese Relations

Author:: Hanna Rubinkowska-Anioł and Nagmeldin Karamalla-Gaiballa
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: Over the last decade, the Ethiopian project of constructing a dam on the Blue Nile (Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, GERD) close to its border with Sudan resulted in creating serious political tensions between Egypt and Ethiopia, with Sudan being involved. Egypt is accusing Ethiopia of attempts to control the water of the Nile, while Ethiopia claims that the power produced by the dam will contribute to the well-being of Ethiopia and its neighbors, most importantly, Sudan. Among many aspects and layers from which the problem of the Nile’s waters and the construction of GERD can be analyzed, there are disputed areas on the Sudanese-Ethiopian border. They are claimed by Sudan on the grounds of breaking the rule of the 1902 treaty, giving the lands to Ethiopia under the condition of not interfering in the flow of the river. This article examines the GERD project and explores in depth the historical, political, and economic significance of the Ethiopian-Sudanese border, with a particular focus on its implications for relations between the two neighboring countries. The article also discusses key issues related to water resource management, historical land disputes, and the geopolitical dynamics of the region, providing a comprehensive historical and contemporary context.
Topic:: Treaties and Agreements, Bilateral Relations, Water, and Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD)
Political Geography:: Africa, Sudan, Ethiopia, and Nile River

10. Anti-Terrorism Prevention in the Police: Theory and Practice

Author:: Marek Cupryjak, Marek Stefański, and Radosław Zych
Publication Date:: 12-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The purpose of this study was to analyse police services in terms of their preparedness to counter terrorist threats. The authors considered that one of the main areas of the research subject in the paper is the relationship between public needs and expectations and the functioning of the police and other entities of the anti-terrorist system in terms of the sense of public security. An essential part of the paper is the presented and discussed results of scientific research on preparing police services to counter terrorist threats. The conducted research clearly indicates that conducting anti-terrorism prevention training is necessary, first and foremost, in the basic professional courses of police officers, as well as in in-service training. It is better to prevent than to be surprised by a terrorist attack, which brings death, destruction, trauma, and tragedy for all those affected. Therefore, every police officer should have a basic knowledge of anti-terrorism prevention issues. The authors include the most important proposals for improving the anti-terrorist system of the Republic of Poland in the conclusions. The most important ones included: efforts should be made to continuously improve the level of training of Polish police officers and officers of counterterrorist formations. These trainings should be organized with the use of instructors and specialists from the world’s leading counter-terrorist units.
Topic:: Terrorism, Counter-terrorism, Homeland Security, Crisis Management, and Police
Political Geography:: Global Focus

11. The Power of Russian Propaganda: Identity-Related and Authoritarian-System Correlated Factors

Author:: Olga Nadskakuła-Kaczmarczyk
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: This article examines identity-related and authoritarian-system correlated factors, as well as how they influence the positive reception of government propaganda in Russia. Identity-related factors include references to specific historical contexts in the state propaganda narrative and a strengthening of specific values and social beliefs, mainly anti-Western ones, in order to achieve the desired social attitude towards the events under discussion. Authoritarian-system correlated factors include both tight regime control over the entire media landscape and issues related to political apathy, attitudes of conformism and manifestations of cynicism as essential elements of political culture in Russia. The methods of communication between the government and society learnt in the authoritarian system also create fertile ground for the impact of the state narrative: it is a specific combination of identity-related factors exploited by Kremlin propaganda (identity framing), as well as those connected to authoritarian settings, such as political apathy and its resulting consequences, that influence Russians’ susceptibility to state propaganda. These two elements, which work together, mean that Russian propaganda does not have to be persuasive to be effective – it should only strengthen and confirm the already encoded beliefs of the majority of citizens.
Topic:: Authoritarianism, Propaganda, Identity, and Russia-Ukraine War
Political Geography:: Russia, Eurasia, and Ukraine

12. Europeanisation of the European Union’s Cultural, Political and Social Dimensions as a Tool for Strengthening European Identity

Author:: Jadwiga Nadolska
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: Using the constructivist paradigm, in the article, the author diagnoses the potential of top-down, bottom-up, cross-loading and ad personam Europeanisation in strengthening the cultural, civic and functional dimensions of European identity. First, the trajectories of how national and European identity form are explained and compared, and the factors determining the development of three dimensions of European identity are examined. The study shows that if Europeanising processes are to be effective in strengthening European identity, they should be developed in a complementary way, in three areas: 1) European culture and education, 2) the pan-European political arena, and 3) reinforcement of the utilitarian legitimacy of the European integration project (e.g. the single market, the single currency, the Schengen Area, cohesion policy), with initiatives in the last area having the greatest potential to affect broad segments of European societies. This is related to the nature of European identity. In contrast to affective national identities, European identity is more cognitive, instrumental and functional, relying less on emotions and more on rational calculations and measurable benefits individuals experience through European integration. Positive effects in the utilitarian dimension of integration are felt not only by Europe’s elites but also by average citizens.
Topic:: European Union, Constructivism, Identity, and National Identity
Political Geography:: Europe

13. Resilience to Online Disinformation: The Role of Civil Society Organizations

Author:: Agnieszka Bejma and Yun-Ju Kao
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The proliferation of online disinformation poses a serious threat to democratic societies, undermining electoral integrity, fueling polarization, and eroding public trust in institutions. Addressing this complex and evolving challenge cannot be the responsibility of governments or civil society actors alone. This article argues that civil society organizations (CSOs), when engaged as co-creators in democratic governance, play a vital role in fostering information resilience in the digital age. Drawing on comparative case studies from Taiwan and Poland: two democracies that have been frequent targets of foreign disinformation campaigns, we examine how CSOs respond to these threats through fact-checking, media monitoring, digital literacy education, and public awareness campaigns. Our findings show that CSOs not only expose misleading content but also empower citizens to critically engage with information ecosystems. The study contributes to the emerging literature on co-governance by demonstrating that effective responses to disinformation require multiactor collaboration, with CSOs serving as institutional partners in safeguarding democratic resilience.
Topic:: Civil Society, Governance, Democracy, Resilience, and Disinformation
Political Geography:: Global Focus

14. Regional Cooperation in the Baltic Sea Region in an Unstable World: Opportunities, Challenges and Threats

Author:: Marta Szulc
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The Baltic Sea Region has been a hub of interregional cooperation, evolving over an extended period of time. The region’s actors have faced and overcome significant challenges, such as the accession of Poland, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia to the European Union (2004) and the development and implementation of the European Union Strategy for the Baltic Sea Region (2009). The theoretical framework that guided these integration processes was multilevel governance and Europeanisation, both in a top-down and bottomup approach and a critical juncture approach. The global challenges of recent years have reshaped the potential for collaboration in the region, creating new opportunities for enhanced cooperation and the challenges and risks associated with adapting to change. This article aims to identify the challenges, opportunities, and threats faced by the Baltic Sea Region in recent years and analyze how they have been addressed. The analysis will be based on foundational data and literature. It is hypothesized that the actors of regional cooperation from the Baltic Sea Region have responded with remarkable resilience and adaptability to the opportunities, possibilities, and threats they have faced in recent years, providing a reassuring outlook for the region’s future.
Topic:: Regional Cooperation, Governance, European Union, and Regional Politics
Political Geography:: Europe and Baltic States

15. Could the War Have Been Prevented? US Lessons from Russia’s War against Ukraine

Author:: Andrzej Demczuk
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The main goal of this article is to analyze American leadership in the context of Russia’s War in Ukraine. Examining the role of the US is important because the results of the study might identify some US strategic and policy weaknesses, which, if applied, might prevent other wars from happening. The main research question has been formulated: Could the Russian War in Ukraine have been prevented? The author’s work is based mainly on the analysis of the interviews with policymakers from the first circle of people in power, mostly the presidents’ advisers who have been particularly involved in implementing American foreign policy towards Russia and Ukraine since the end of the Cold War, as well as Ukrainian officials and those participating in the US-led coalition. US lessons from Russia’s War in Ukraine are of particular significance today, when the world faces a possible confrontation in the Indo-Pacific region between China and Taiwan, as well as the spread of the Middle East turmoil.
Topic:: Foreign Policy, International Security, Leadership, and Russia-Ukraine War
Political Geography:: North America and United States of America

16. Protecting Employee Privacy and Security in the Age of Digital Performance Monitoring: A Legal Comparative Analysis of Post-Communist Countries – Poland, Croatia, and the Republic of North Macedonia

Author:: Dorota Domalewska, Sanja Tišma, and Katerina Veljanovska Blazhevska
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: In the context of rapidly increasing digital performance monitoring in the workplace, concerns over employee privacy and ethical considerations arise. This tension between organizational control and employee privacy becomes especially complex in postcommunist societies like Poland, Croatia, and the Republic of North Macedonia, which have a history of state surveillance and control. Drawing on various academic sources and employing a doctrinal-legal method, this study examines how cultural, historical, and legal factors shape perceptions and protections of privacy. It also analyzes the legal frameworks of privacy rights in the workplace. The research reveals that post-communist legacies influence public attitudes towards digital privacy, which is reflected in a low interest in digital privacy in these countries and legislation that lags behind rapid technological advancements. Despite their EU-aligned legislation that provides guidelines for ethical data collection and surveillance, an ambivalent perception of privacy exists among citizens, influenced by their history of state surveillance and control. All three countries have specific legislations that encompass civil, criminal, administrative, and labor law to protect privacy in the workplace. The study concludes with policy recommendations, emphasizing the need for ongoing legislative scrutiny to strike a balance between privacy protection and a stable and secure work environment.
Topic:: Ethics, Privacy, Surveillance, Monitoring, Digital Performance, GDPR, and Post-Communism
Political Geography:: Europe, Poland, Croatia, and North Macedonia

17. A Glimpse of Environmental Procedural Democracy in Poland: Thwarting the Civil Society’s Pursuit of Legal Action Against Environmental Plans

Author:: Karolina Karpus
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: Public participation in environmental matters through access to justice is an indispensable aspect of environmental democracy. It has become increasingly evident that this type of democratic social control over the activities of public authorities should also encompass legislative acts. This poses a significant challenge for the contemporary political-legal system, as is demonstrably evident in the case of Polish environmental plans. Civic control of the legality of such general acts, enacted by public administration bodies in legislative or special procedures, is implemented in two steps. Firstly, it takes the form of participation through comments or questions on the draft of a plan submitted by civic society during the preparatory stage of the law-making process. Secondly, the control focuses on the plans after they are enacted. At this point, it takes the form of legal actions brought by members of the public before national courts in order to investigate the material and procedural legality of environmental plans. However, at present the access to justice in this respect is limited. The aim of the article is to analyse the legal reasons for this deficiency of Polish environmental procedural democracy and to assess it in the light of Poland’s international obligations.
Topic:: Civil Society, Environment, Democracy, Legislation, Justice, and Political Participation
Political Geography:: Europe and Poland

18. Media and Democracy in Crisis. A Comparative Analysis of Images of the Riots in the USA in the Public Media of Germany, Poland, and Russia

Author:: Dagmara Głuszek-Szafraniec and Patrycja Szostok-Nowacka
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: This article presents a diverse European perspective on democracy and freedom of expression. The research was conducted on 73 public television materials after the storming of the Capitol in Germany, Poland, and Russia. The content analysis employed 75 categories in the categorization key. The German perspective focused on stabilizing the democratic system after Biden’s win and on respect for democratic values in the USA. The narrative style is centered around change, a natural process in a democracy. Polish public television dominated an atmosphere of anxiety, but the criticism of the democratic opposition in Poland found an analogy between the actions of media corporations and opposition politicians. The materials in the Russian service were biased and directed against American democracy in general. Criticism was levelled at the hypocrisy of the authorities, the inefficiency of democratic procedures, and the lack of respect for political traditions. The portrayal of crisis events in the USA depended on the level of democracy in the country and, to varying degrees, also served as a pretext for criticizing democracy in general and referencing events in the country being analyzed.
Topic:: Democracy, Media, Narrative, January 6, and Public Media
Political Geography:: Russia, Poland, Germany, and United States of America

19. Reflection on Two Levels: Stalemate at COP28, Stakes at COP29

Author:: Majid Asadnabizadeh
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: This article analyzes the Conference of the Parties (COP) in Dubai in 2023 and COP29 in 2024. Some outcomes of COP28 were optimistic, while others require reassessment at COP29. The author identifies four essential issues for COP28 using literary language analysis. Two favorable terms, “financial support” and “food system”, were found, along with two challenging terms, “Loss and Damage” and “Global Stocktake” (GST). The second level of analysis focuses on the situation leading up to COP29. GST is highlighted as a crucial issue, especially after Russia invaded Ukraine, which has raised doubts about the transition away from fossil fuels. The author suggests that during COP29, energy independence pioneers, such as the EU, and proponents of energy dependence, like India and China, may face conflicts, complicating cooperation between industrialized and developing countries. Additionally, the US situation poses challenges for international cooperation, with uncertainty surrounding the 2024 elections and the potential return of Donald Trump. The Republicans, under Trump, are less likely to support energy independence, particularly given the roles of China and India and their continued reliance on fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, after 2022.
Topic:: Climate Change, Energy, Conference of the Parties (COP), COP28, and COP29
Political Geography:: Global Focus

20. Deception as Process and Content: Mapping Research on Deception Published in SJR’s Top-Ranked Communication Studies Journals

Author:: Barbara Cyrek, Malwina Popiołek, Jenna Peltonen, Leslie Corbo, and Maxim Gorbachevsky
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: This paper reviews the recent literature in the field of communication sciences in terms of analyzing the research on deception, misinformation, and information misuse. A scoping review of the literature presented here focuses on deception studies published in top SJR journals in the years 2020–2022. Two research approaches can be distinguished in this field: analyzing the process or analyzing the content. For the most part, researchers analyze deception from the perspective of the communication process, there are far fewer studies on the content of deceptive messages. Original papers comprise the majority of studies on deception in the communications field, and, among them, dominate the research on social media. In recent years, research on instant messaging services such as WhatsApp has been increasingly popular, but there has been a lack of studies on Telegram, which is growing in importance for communication processes. This work contributes to the literature on deception by introducing a novel literature sampling method and investigating two dimensions of deception analysis, of which one is far more represented in communication studies.
Topic:: Communications, Disinformation, Misinformation, Fake News, and Deception
Political Geography:: Global Focus

21. The Idea of War in the Culture of the Russian Nation

Author:: Piotr Gawliczek, Jacek Mrozek, and Andrzej Soboń
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: Mentality is the result of social processes and is shaped by life experiences, as well as values and norms passed on during socialization. In the case of Russia, history, literature, art, and spirituality play a significant role in shaping the national identity and, consequently, the perception of war. The image of war is often presented in a selective or idealized way. In Russian historical discourse, the positive aspects of one’s history are often emphasized, while, simultaneously, controversial or negative factors are often ignored or minimized. The methodology employed in the paper involves a qualitative comparative method, which involves analyzing the concept of war in Russian culture, describing the characteristics of a nation’s mentality through various aspects of an ethnic group’s spiritual life, and understanding the ideology underlying Russia’s foreign policy. The article concludes that analyzing the concept of war within the Russian nation’s culture is not possible without understanding the general mentality of the entire society. The Russians are less willing to take up the problem of crimes committed in that period by soldiers of the Red Army, which is also the case during the occupation of Ukraine.
Topic:: War, Armed Conflict, and Security Culture
Political Geography:: Russia and Eurasia

22. Evolution of Budget Expenditures on Agriculture in Poland Over Two Decades of Membership in the European Union

Author:: Ryszard Kata, Marcin Czyżniewski, and Anna Matuszczak
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: This article analyzes changes in fiscal policy in agriculture in Poland from 2004 to 2024, as captured through the prism of budget expenditures on agriculture. The analysis focused on the volume, dynamics, and structure of total agricultural budget expenditures, including national budget funds and EU funds allocated to the European budget. It was found that during the two decades of Poland’s membership in the European Union, agricultural budget expenditures were strongly influenced by the volume of European funds allocated to agriculture and rural development under the instruments of the Common Agricultural Policy. Changes in agricultural budget expenditures, were mainly due to the adjustment of the national fiscal policy towards agriculture to the structural changes taking place in the agricultural sector. They also resulted from specific state fiscal interventions aimed at mitigating the adverse effects of destabilizing agricultural markets and crises caused by natural-climatic and geopolitical factors. Poland’s agricultural budget expenditures were subject to both evolutionary changes resulting from modifications to agricultural policy, as well as changes in the government’s response to the current challenges and problems of the agricultural sector and the agricultural market.
Topic:: Agriculture, Budget, European Union, and Fiscal Policy
Political Geography:: Europe and Poland

23. Post-Military Politics and ‘Emi Lokan’ Democracy in Nigeria

Author:: Remi Chukwudi Okeke
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: This paper interrogated post-military politics and ‘Emi Lokan’ democracy in Nigeria. It is a significant contribution to the ongoing academic focus on consolidating democracy in the country. According to the research hypothesis, post-military politics in the country still contain some unnecessary military-governance propensities that have not been fully identified for invalidation. The study examined the meaning of ‘Emi Lokan’ democracy. It investigated its democratic implications. The work was based on a qualitative research design, embedding the consultation of secondary sources of non-numeric data. A key message of the contribution is that the influence of military culture in the current democratic order in the country has remained undiminished. The work found that the ‘Emi Lokan’ political belief in Nigeria owes its distasteful origin to the interference of the military in the governance affairs of the nation. It is concluded in the paper that the undesirable ‘Emi Lokan’ democracy can only be stopped in the country by the coming together of a manifestly new breed of politicians. An auspicious attempt was made in this regard during the 2023 presidential election in the nation.
Topic:: Democracy, Domestic Politics, and Military
Political Geography:: Africa and Nigeria

24. Reacting to Instrumentalization of Migration through Reframing of Asylum Norms in the European Union: Strategic Normative Triaging as a Contestation Practice

Author:: Dorota Heidrich
Publication Date:: 12-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: This article examines how the European Union (EU) and member states have responded to the instrumentalisation of migration by reframing core asylum norms within both the Common European Asylum System (CEAS) and national legislation. While the EU’s New Pact on Migration and Asylum formally reaffirms long-standing commitments to solidarity, human rights, and refugee protection, it also introduces a set of exceptional measures that allow states to restrict or temporarily suspend asylum obligations when migration is portrayed as instrumentalised. Building on this framing, countries such as Poland, Finland, and Greece have adopted domestic laws enabling emergency derogations, border closures, and practices that, in effect, facilitate pushbacks. These reforms are typically justified through narratives of hybrid threats and heightened security concerns. The paper conceptualises these developments through the lens of strategic normative triaging – a mode of norm contestation in which states selectively elevate security-related norms while downplaying humanitarian obligations, presenting these choices as necessary responses to extraordinary circumstances. Drawing on contestation theory in International Relations, the paper argues that this process contributes to a gradual weakening of asylum protections across Europe and, most notably, to the incremental erosion of the non-refoulement principle.
Topic:: Migration, European Union, Norms, and Asylum
Political Geography:: Europe

25. Transatlantic Relations under the Biden Administration: Balancing between Liberal Internationalism and Pragmatic Realism

Author:: Aleksandra Jarczewska
Publication Date:: 12-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The article examines transatlantic relations under the Biden administration, focusing on the tension between liberal internationalist ideals and the imperatives of pragmatic realism. In its early stage, the Biden presidency signalled a renewed commitment to multilateralism, democratic values, and revitalised alliances. However, Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine underscored the limits of the idealist framework, compelling a recalibration toward interest-driven, security-oriented policies. The study explores whether this represents a genuine revival of liberal internationalism or a strategic hybridisation of liberal norms and realist instruments of statecraft. Moreover, it identifies elements of continuity from the first Trump administration to Biden’s pragmatic adjustments beneath the liberal rhetoric. The article contributes to the scholarly debate by reassessing certain conceptual frameworks in international relations, offering a nuanced understanding of how liberal internationalism is being reconfigured in response to shifting geopolitical realities. The findings highlight the evolving nature of US-EU cooperation and the challenges facing the international liberal order.
Topic:: European Union, Transatlantic Relations, Joe Biden, Internationalism, and Pragmatic Realism
Political Geography:: Europe, North America, and United States of America

26. Protection of Civilians According to the Approaches of the United Nations and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization: Analysis of Assumptions and Challenges during Peace, Crisis Management, Armed Conflicts and War

Author:: Tomasz Rubaj and Anna Ludwiczak
Publication Date:: 12-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The article presents the conclusions of research in the area of Protection of Civilians (PoC). The first part discusses the essence, purpose, main components, and dimensions of PoC. The introductory section provides a comparative analysis of the principles of PoC under the UN and NATO approaches, indicating both similarities and the reasons for existing differences. The research focuses on the evolving challenges of PoC, taking into account lessons learned from crises, armed conflicts, and wars. The purpose of the article is to analyse the main assumptions of PoC adopted by the UN and NATO during crises and wars. The research problem is expressed through the following question: How are the basic assumptions of PoC formulated in the UN and NATO approaches, what similarities and differences exist between them, and how can they be improved in light of experiences from contemporary crises, armed conflicts, and wars? The article also identifies the main challenges related to PoC and the management of international organizations. It presents the theoretical framework, research findings, and issues for further discussion.
Topic:: Security, NATO, United Nations, Crisis Management, Civilians, Armed Conflict, and Protection
Political Geography:: Global Focus

27. Disinformation and Post-Politics: The Case of Anti-Ukrainian Narratives in Hungary

Author:: Dorka Takácsy
Publication Date:: 12-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: In recent years, Hungary has emerged not only as a place to observe democratic backsliding but also for the convergence of depoliticization and the strategic deployment of disinformation. This paper examines how top-down anti-Ukrainian disinformation campaigns have reshaped public attitudes, hollowed out deliberative space, and contributed to what theorists term a post-political condition. Focusing on the period following the start of Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine, the paper showcases how the Hungarian government’s communication apparatus has deliberately and effectively mobilised fear, economic anxiety, and cultural isolationism to create a depoliticised population increasingly resistant to transnational solidarity. This process reflects a broader post-political trend: a preference for technocratic control and media-managed consensus over open political contestation. The paper illustrates how depoliticization happens not exclusively through institutional mechanisms but also through affective and ideological control. The Hungarian case shows how state-funded disinformation can serve as a key instrument in the transition from politicised discourse to technocratic and symbolic rule, in which citizens are not so much excluded from participation as redirected into non-confrontational, emotionally disengaged roles.
Topic:: Disinformation
Political Geography:: Hungary

28. Unpacking Iranophobia in the Iranian Supreme Leader’s Discourse

Author:: Ali Basarati
Publication Date:: 12-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: Following the 1979 Islamic Revolution, Iran’s social and political landscape underwent a significant transformation, challenging Western-centric political narratives and discourses, fostering a new epistemological and ideological framework rooted in the Shiite Islamic principles. This study aims to investigate the prevalent phenomenon of reconstructing and redistributing the discourse of Iranophobia through the Iranian Supreme Leader’s discourse. Employing Foucauldian discourse analysis, the study examines 100 speeches delivered between 2006 and 2024 to understand how Iranophobia is framed, its causes, and its strategic implications. The findings suggest that Iranophobia is not only a geopolitical construct but also a mechanism of political fear used to sustain global hegemony and justify restrictive policies against Iran. The study highlights how Iran’s ideological independence and counter-hegemonic stance have intensified its portrayal as a security threat. By analyzing the Supreme Leader’s discourse, this research provides insights into the broader geopolitical struggle and the discursive strategies shaping Iran’s international positioning.
Topic:: Geopolitics, Ideology, Iranophobia, Islamic Revolution, and Counter-hegemony
Political Geography:: Iran and Middle East

29. Green Soft Power? Checking in on China as a Responsible Stakeholder

Author:: Agnieszka Nitza-Makowska, Kerry Anne Longhurst, and Katarzyna Skiert-Andrzejuk
Publication Date:: 01-2024
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: By assuming a proactive role in international environmental regimes and extending the ‘green’ dimensions of its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), China has been seeking to promote itself as a leader and responsible stakeholder in global environmental governance. This article examines this development concerning the notion of China’s ‘soft power’ and, more specifically, the notion of ‘green soft power’ – which aims to bridge the traditional concept of soft power with a state’s behavior on environmental and climate issues. China presents an interesting case since it has accrued a considerable amount of green soft power through its multilateral environmental diplomacy practiced at the Conferences of the Parties (COPs), the high-profile annual United Nations Climate Change Conferences, but its patchy deployment of environmental standards in the bilateral engagements under the BRI highlights the contradictions in referring to China as a green soft power. With these ideas in mind, this article holds that in the search to understand the evolving nature of China’s responsible stakeholder role, attention should be given to exploring the notion of green soft power.
Topic:: Foreign Policy, Diplomacy, Environment, Soft Power, and Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)
Political Geography:: China and Asia

30. A Legal Notion of Adverse Inference in WTO Case Law

Author:: Markiyan Malskyy
Publication Date:: 01-2024
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: Gathering evidence is of utmost importance in any legal proceeding. However, sometimes, one of the parties may hide specific evidence, which complicates the adjudicators’ reaching of a fair conclusion. For such cases, judges or arbitrators can use several tools, one of which is adverse inference. An adverse inference is a negative conclusion that may be drawn from a party’s failure to provide some evidence without a valid excuse for non-production. By drawing it, adjudicators assume this evidence would harm the party’s interests. At the same time, adverse inference is quite a radical tool because it may strongly impact the final decision. Because of this, adjudicators are sometimes cautious about using it. This paper analyzes the notion of adverse inference in the context of the dispute resolution mechanism available in the WTO. In particular, three cases were summarized in which the Appellate Body made interesting findings regarding the application of adverse inference. As a result of the work, conclusions from these cases are made that can be used by lawyers in future WTO disputes, as well as in other international and national dispute resolution fora.
Topic:: World Trade Organization, Dispute Resolution, Fact-Finding, and Adverse Influence
Political Geography:: Global Focus

31. Czech-Russian Relations. Russian Disinformation Campaign

Author:: Andrzej Jacuch
Publication Date:: 01-2024
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: After the beginning of the conflict in Ukraine and Russia’s annexation of the Crimean Peninsula, the Czech Republic became fully aware of the threats posed by the Kremlin despite President Zeman has denied the presence of Russian troops in Ukraine and has criticised the EU sanctions against Russia. Czechia belongs to the group of countries through which Russia influences the EU, to gradually and deliberately erode its structures. Russia exerts a strong influence on the Czech Republic by non-military means, including disinformation and propaganda, the activities of secret services, and penetration of its economy and specifically its energy sector. The article aims to answer the question about the role of Russian disinformation and propaganda in the context of Russian influence in the Czech Republic. The role of Russian disinformation and propaganda and how Russia influences Czechia is extensively analysed. The main hypothesis is that Russia treats the Czech Republic as a key state for espionage and disinformation activities and as a zone of influence, undermining the sovereignty of the Czech Republic and the role of NATO and the EU.
Topic:: International Relations, Bilateral Relations, Resilience, Disinformation, and Russia-Ukraine War
Political Geography:: Russia, Europe, and Czech Republic

32. The State and Catholics in Vietnam

Author:: Małgorzata Pietrasiak
Publication Date:: 01-2024
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The article falls within the political science of religion, a “transactional” perspective. A critical point at stake here is preserving the political system, which officially draws on socialist ideas, and Hochiminhism, which consists of the deferring of liberal democracy. A historical background of the emergence of Catholicism in Vietnam has been shown, which proves that Catholics operated under the shadow of anti-national and anti-patriotic accusations. This narrative was additionally strengthened during Indochina’s war when the ruling Communist Party required consolidation around nationalist and communist ideas. The change brought by the reform of Doi Moi, which on the first plan put up economic liberalization followed by greater tolerance and openness, but without changing the party system. Catholics enjoy greater freedom; they can also join the Communist Party, which, in return, expects stabilization and support for the political system. New forms of cooperation with religious groups have been developed. However, some of them are still criticized, including limitations related to the registration of religious groups and control by the state apparatus.
Topic:: Political Science, Catholic Church, and Freedom of Religion
Political Geography:: Vietnam and Southeast Asia

33. Political and Economic Dimensions of the Dominance of Selected Asian Recycling Yards in the World

Author:: Malgorzata Kamola-Cieslik
Publication Date:: 01-2024
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan have dominated the global ship recycling market in the 21st century. A recycled ship provides steel and other metals for industrial reuse. In addition to economic gains, ship recycling affects the environment and workers’ health. The article compares the changes in the policies of the governments of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan regarding recycling shipyard operations from 2009-2022 in the context of international and EU law standards. It also shows the impact of international organizations, shipbuilding trade unions, Shipbreaking Platform non-governmental, Maersk shipping company, and Norway on the decisions of South Asian countries to make them ratify the Hong Kong International Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships. Analysis of the collected research material allows us to conclude that the governments of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan have shown varying degrees of understanding of introducing legal regulations for safe ship recycling.
Topic:: Government, International Law, Recycling, and Trade Unions
Political Geography:: Pakistan, Bangladesh, India, and Asia

34. Notes Towards a Multifaceted Approach to Political Stability

Author:: Radu Carp and Łukasz Perlikowski
Publication Date:: 01-2024
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: This paper seeks to improve comprehension of issues related to political stability. The primary elucidating tool employed is the multifaceted approach to political stability. This is the idea that similar political stability mechanisms can be observed in many different political contexts. These phenomena consist of conspicuous discrepancies between the stability of dimensions or layers of the political sphere. The lack of congruency between political stability and economic stability, differences between the stability of government authorities and the stability of the whole political system, or the gap between social and political stability are examples that are not difficult to grasp in ordinary observations of political appearances. The main task of this paper is to explain and elaborate on the reasons behind this phenomenon. As an additional value, some suggestions of how our findings can change the view on the method of research on political stability are to be found. The outcome of our investigation can be applied to comparative politics, constitutional studies, and political system analysis. The paper is particularly significant for empirically oriented political theory.
Topic:: Political stability, Asynchronism, and System Analysis Approach
Political Geography:: Global Focus

35. Nationalist Tendencies in the Foreign Policy of Central European States on the Example of Poland and Hungary. Implementation of the Idea of a Sovereign State

Author:: Andrzej Wojtaszak
Publication Date:: 01-2024
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: Central Europe is associated with several cultural, economic, and geopolitical processes undergoing considerable intensification in the 21st century. The emergence of nationalist sentiment in this region of the continent coincides with it. This is particularly evident in countries politically dominated by radical right-wing ruling parties (e.g., Poland, Hungary), aiming to reshape the EU, opposing the system of liberal democracy in favor of social solidarity and a Europe of Homelands, rejecting the concepts of a federal Europe, and supporting the idea of national sovereignty. These concepts are taken up by conservative formations of a populist nature, which explain their activities with Eurorealism. The consequence of this policy is the emergence of new visions of Central Europe and the desire to increase the region’s role in international relations. An essential role in these processes is played by the politics of memory preferred by the ruling regimes.
Topic:: Foreign Policy, Nationalism, Sovereignty, and Memory
Political Geography:: Poland, Hungary, and Central Europe

36. Nationalism, Capitalism and Hostility Towards Environmental Policies: A Theoretical Study

Author:: Piotr Walwicz
Publication Date:: 01-2024
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The article explores a possible connection between nationalism, capitalism, and nationalist movements’ common hostility towards environmental policies. It draws from materialist assertions about the capitalogenic nature of ecological degradation and modernist theories of nationalism, which explain it as a product or by-product of capitalist modernization. By employing theories of nationalism’s instrumentality in preserving the existing social hierarchies, the article proposes that this approach might be extrapolated onto socioecological hierarchies, which are contested or have their fundamental rules challenged by many environmental policies. Nationalism may then be seen as an instrument of capital – personified by the privileged elites – taking advantage of an ideology that appeals to those ‘left behind’ by modernization and globalization to thwart or delay changes to the socioecological status quo. An identity-based movement is thus utilized to protect the continuing exploitation and appropriation of nature. This proposed connection underscores the need for further empirical research, which is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of the topic and its potential impact on environmental policies.
Topic:: Environment, Nationalism, Capitalism, and Modernity
Political Geography:: Global Focus

37. EU-ASEAN Political Relations in the Light of Values and Norms of the International Liberal Order

Author:: Joanna Starzyk-Sulejewska
Publication Date:: 01-2024
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The article aims to analyse the significance of liberal norms and values in the development of political relations between the EU and ASEAN, an issue which has been only selectively analysed in academic literature. At the same time, the topic of the article fits into a broader landscape of issues associated with the development of relations between international intergovernmental organisations in contemporary international relations, only partially studied in Polish and international literature to date. Considering the essential framework of classic constructivism, as well as significant contributions added by critical constructivism, the article formulates a research hypothesis whereby the European Union and ASEAN are organisations which, while recognising the importance of liberal values and norms, take a different approach to their promotion and protection. The European Union, which attempted to act towards ASEAN as an interpreter and diffuser of the aforementioned values and norms in the 1990s, adopted a pragmatic approach over time, in response to ASEAN’s stance and actions, limiting its role in this respect and taking regional conditions and dependencies into account. In order to verify this hypothesis, three research questions were formulated, namely: What is the place of liberal norms and values in the EU and ASEAN policy documents? Is the respect and protection of liberal norms and values an important element declared in mutual relations? How do both sides approach the implementation of liberal norms and values in practice in selected cases? This article is structured around these issues and discusses the significance of liberal norms and values in EU and ASEAN policy documents, the place and role of liberal norms and values in documents underpinning EUASEAN relations and in EU documents formulated towards ASEAN and the Southeast Asian region and also provides an analysis of EU and ASEAN policy towards Myanmar.
Topic:: International Relations, European Union, Liberalism, Norms, ASEAN, and International Order
Political Geography:: Europe and Asia-Pacific

38. An Interaction Between Regional Power and Liberal International Order (LIO): A Case Study of India and Indonesia

Author:: Saroj Kumar Aryal
Publication Date:: 01-2024
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The main aim of this paper is to find a pattern in the possible way the regional and global order interact with each other. To analyse the interaction, India and Indonesia are presented as the case studies. The rationale behind choosing India and Indonesia is, that both of them since their independence have had similar foreign policies and approaches to international order. On the other hand, both of the countries have been coined as the rising power in the current international relations. While the system-led analysis generalizes the top-to-bottom approach to explain the interaction between regional and global order, the increasing multiplicities in the distribution of power made it more difficult to simply generalise it. Thus, this article attempts to fill that gap.
Topic:: Foreign Policy, Liberalism, International Order, and Regional Power
Political Geography:: South Asia, Indonesia, India, and Southeast Asia

39. The Re-integration of Regional Studies as a Sub-Discipline of International Relations

Author:: Jakub Zajaczkowski
Publication Date:: 01-2024
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The aim of this article is to analyse the ontological and epistemological dimensions of the main stages of the development of regional studies as a sub-discipline of international relations. The research problem of the article focuses on the interdependence and significance of regional studies as a sub-discipline within the scholarly discipline of international relations. The issue of regionalism and the region arose in the period of the establishment of international relations as a scholarly discipline during the interwar years, and was further conceptualized in the 1950s and 1960s during the Cold War period. The status of regional studies was then marginalized in methodological, ontological and epistemological discourse by the main theoretical trends of international relations. As a result, it was only after the end of the Cold War that we witnessed a gradual, systemic process of reintegration of regional studies within the discipline. This article argues that the reintegration of regional studies into the discipline of international relations is a function of two parallel processes that are interrelated: the transformation of the liberal international order after the end of the Cold War and increased pluralism in scholarly discourse within the discipline of international relations. These developments and their associated academic implications have contributed to the consolidation and strengthening of regional studies as a major subdiscipline of international relations.
Topic:: International Relations, Liberalism, and International Order
Political Geography:: Global Focus

40. Arab Nationalism in Syria

Author:: Anita Adamczyk and Fuad Jomma
Publication Date:: 01-2023
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: Syria is one of many countries in the Middle East diverse in terms of religion, nationality, and ethnicity. Internal divisions emerged when Syria reclaimed independence in 1946, but the differences inside Syrian society have become a taboo. One of the reasons for that was Arab nationalism, which claimed that they were all Arabs. The Syrian authorities managed to maintain the appearance of national homogeneity owing to these claims. This article aims to show the uniqueness of Arab nationalism, which is not characteristic of one country but of numerous states sharing a common past, language, and their citizens belonging to the family of the Arab nation. As a case study for Syria, this article analyses the basic concepts relevant to the subject (nationalism, the nation from the perspective of Islam, and Arab thought), the roots of pan-Arabism in Syria and its presence in the public and legal space. It also attempts to demonstrate that Arab nationalism helped the Syrian authorities (represented by the Alawite minority) blur national, ethnic, and religious differences and thus preserve the unity of society and state.
Topic:: Nationalism, Alawites, and Pan-Arabism
Political Geography:: Middle East and Syria

41. Comparative Analysis of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and European Union Strategy on Central Asia: Confrontation or Cooperation?

Author:: Danylo Stonis
Publication Date:: 01-2023
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: In 2021, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) turned 20 years old. With “Shanghai Spirit” as its guiding principle, the scope of SCO’s activity has significantly expanded, recently adding India and Pakistan to its members. As a result, SCO policy has heavily influenced the Central Asia region. In response, in 2019, the EU launched a new strategy for Central Asia, adopting “connectivity” as its core concept. As a result, both SCO and EU strategies in Central Asia tend to conflict with each other, thus leading to uneven and inconsistent development of the region. Therefore, this paper aims to identify contradictions between SCO’s “Shanghai Spirit” guiding principle and the EU’s concept of “connectivity” by comparing the SCO and EU strategies toward Central Asia. The methodology in the paper involves a qualitative comparative method, including two qualitative case studies, represented by the SCO’s “Shanghai Spirit” and the EU’s concept of “connectivity” in their strategies on Central Asia. The article concludes that contestation between the SCO and the EU policies in Central Asia impedes stable development of the region, and therefore, a compromise between both policies in Central Asia is suggested.
Topic:: European Union, Connectivity, and Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO)
Political Geography:: Europe and Central Asia

42. Toxic Ticking Time-Bomb in the Baltic Sea and Threats to Poland’s Security

Author:: Rafał Willa and Agnieszka Szpak
Publication Date:: 01-2023
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The authors examine the threats from hazardous toxic materials from World War II wrecks sunk in the Baltic Sea and their cargo of chemical ammunition, indicate Poland’s reaction to this situation, and map out Polish obligations in this regard. This problem gives rise to multiple uncertainties about the exact nature of threats to environmental/ecological security, marine security, human security (including health security), economic security and food safety. The authors also elaborate on legal regulations relevant in this context. The research methods include formal-institutional analysis of relevant legal documents and discourse analysis. The main conclusions are: 1. toxic materials in the Baltic Sea threaten ecological, economic, human and security; 2. food safety in all Baltic states might be endangered; Poland should accede to the Nairobi Wreck Removal Convention; and Poland should cooperate regionally to resolve the problem of the Baltic chemical waste.
Topic:: International Law, Chemical Weapons, and Shipwreck
Political Geography:: Europe, Poland, and Baltic Sea

43. Naxalism: The Left-Wing Extremist Movement in India

Author:: Rajashri Ghosh
Publication Date:: 01-2023
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: After 200 years of bondage, India gained freedom from the British through numerous revolutionary movements in 1947. But, within 20 years of the independence, insurgent movements had started arising against the Indian Government as well. In 1967, the Naxalite insurgency was initiated as a radical protest by the oppressed peasants against the colonial tenancy system retained by the feudal landowners even after the British had left the country for good. The uprising got pinpointed as Naxalism and the rebels as Naxals, as it all started at Naxalbari, a village in the Indian state of West Bengal. Spanning over 50 years, this ongoing movement initially acquired the respect of the general population of India with its radical ideologies of fighting against the oppressor imperialists but soon mutated into a source of terror. A qualitative assessment of the instances taken from secondary sources, such as context-related online journals and blog articles, will help this paper to explain the formation of the contemporary perception of Naxalism as an extreme radical armed revolution and one of the biggest security challenges against the Indian Government.
Topic:: Terrorism, Radicalization, Leftist Politics, Maoism, and Naxalism
Political Geography:: South Asia and India

44. Human-Rights Approach to Water in the European Union on the 10th Anniversary of the ‘Right2Water’ Initiative

Author:: Olga Hałub-Kowalczyk
Publication Date:: 01-2023
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The 20 principles of the European Pillar of Social Rights adopted by the EU in 2017 include the right to access such basic services as water, sanitation, energy or transport. In the face of the climate crisis, the first of these rights is becoming a service which, due to the progression of global warming, could lose its universal and easily accessible nature. It seems reasonable to ask about the chances of developing a ‘right to water’ within the framework of the EU’s system, which would unambiguously oblige the public authorities to ensure access to this right. The trigger for this research was the ‘Right2Water’ European citizens’ initiative addressed to the European Commission in 2013, which contained postulates to recognise access to water as a human right. Ten years after the launch of this procedure, it is reasonable to acknowledge the verification of the actions taken by the EU and whether the evolving EU water policy can be assessed as being oriented towards ensuring the right to water for all EU-inhabitants. The aim of this paper justifies the use of legal-dogmatic research methodology. Regarding the analysis of legal acts, the rules of legal hermeneutics were applied, esp. grammar and teleological interpretation.
Topic:: Human Rights, Water, European Union, and Sanitation
Political Geography:: Europe

45. Cognitive War in Ukraine

Author:: Adam Paweł Olechowski
Publication Date:: 01-2023
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The article aims to identify social impact activities in the context of information operations conducted by Ukraine during the 2022 war. An analysis of the creation and spread of information threats as a result of Russia’s ongoing conflict is driven by the increasing impact of communication on global security. The content of the study highlights the impact of trends in the creation of information threats, which are the determinants of social risks. In the article, an analysis of creating information threats, including producing and reporting information in propaganda and the traditional and modern media, is of significant importance. The impact and role of mass media on awareness-raising is presented, revealing mechanisms for influencing public opinion.
Topic:: Public Opinion, Media, Disinformation, Russia-Ukraine War, and Social Impact Mechanisms
Political Geography:: Europe and Ukraine

46. Drugs and State Vigilantism as a Strategy of Political Activity: The Example of Thailand, the Philippines, and Indonesia

Author:: Kornel Bielawski
Publication Date:: 01-2023
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The problem of distribution and consumption of intoxicating substances is considered a socially harmful phenomenon and Southeast Asia is a region particularly affected by drugs. In the face of this challenge, the heads of many states undertake radical actions, going beyond the legal framework, referred to as state vigilantism. Based on the example of three selected political leaders (Thaksin Shinawatra, Rodrigo Duterte and Joko Widodo), the author points out how radical strategies for fighting the drug problem contribute to increasing popularity, even though the problem has not been resolved since the early 1970s. Cross-comparison analysis of the three mentioned cases aims at identifying sources of effectiveness and attractiveness of populist methods that have not changed significantly for fifty years. Among them the author argues that vigilantism grows out of populism and takes the form of a spectacle containing such elements as dehumanising discourse, extrajudicial killings and the theme of the nation’s morality at risk.
Topic:: Politics, Populism, Drugs, and Vigilantism
Political Geography:: Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Southeast Asia

47. The Criminality of Foreign Nationals in Switzerland as a Security Threat in the Context of Swiss Migration Policy

Author:: Paweł Olbrycht
Publication Date:: 01-2023
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The purpose of the research was to investigate the scale of crime by foreign nationals in Switzerland in the context of the effectiveness of the assumptions of the migration policy of that state in the area of security. Materials and methods: The research uses literature sources and statistical data on the crime of foreign nationals in Switzerland and its migration policy. The author used qualitative research methods, including the query of literature and strategic documents (using the content analysis technique) and the analysis of statistical data (using the desk research technique). Results: In the context of the three analysed factors, the following trends can be observed: steadily declining crime in Switzerland; the relatively constant level of crime by foreign nationals, especially since 2018; constant, although relatively mildly growing, percentage of foreign nationals’ crime in the overall crime scale. Conclusions: In the context of the assessment of the effectiveness of the implementation of the assumptions of Switzerland’s migration policy in the area of security, it should be noted that the relatively constant level of the crime rate of foreign nationals, despite their constantly growing population, proves the optimality of these assumptions and their highly effective implementation.
Topic:: Security, Crime, Migrants, and Migration Policy
Political Geography:: Europe and Switzerland

48. The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Local Press in Poland: The Internet Instead of Print?

Author:: Jolanta Kępa-Mętrak
Publication Date:: 01-2023
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: This article examines changes in Polish local press at the turn of the second and the third decade of the 21st Century, directly or indirectly related to the coronavirus pandemic. For years, statistics have been showing declining sales of printed press. This is mainly the case of the general-interest newspapers – national, regional, and local alike. Internet media platforms are increasingly important and often take over the role of the leading local media. Due to their limited reach, local publishers felt the losses from reduced advertising revenue and copy sales even more acutely than national publishers. Local press and small publishing teams struggled to cope with the impact of the pandemic and demand for digitization. So, what will the local press look like in the following years? How will the pandemic change the face of the local press? This study addresses these issues based on findings from desk research, case studies, and content analysis of relevant media. The result of the research is the confirmation of changes in the field of local communication, especially in its channels. The printed press arouses less and less interest among recipients and ceases to function as the fourth estate.
Topic:: Communications, Media, Internet, and COVID-19
Political Geography:: Europe and Poland

49. Chinese Soft Power

Author:: Robert Edmund Łoś
Publication Date:: 01-2023
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: China’s modern power is based on traditional sources: territory size, demographics, economy, and army. An important factor of power is soft power, which is based on culture, foreign policy (including economics), and values. Chinese soft power resources have an old tradition and the possibility of using them is large, and most importantly, in the current international environment, they can use them to gain and maintain an advantage over competitors. The article presents the elements of China’s soft power that determine its advantage over other countries and the weaknesses that may limit its influence. It largely determines the research methods used: statistics and system analysis. The latter method makes it possible to determine the scale of China’s influence and the chances of using them in the 21st century.
Topic:: Foreign Policy, Culture, Soft Power, and Values
Political Geography:: China and Asia

50. Social Implications of Infodemic Concurrent with COVID-19

Author:: Juliusz Sikorski
Publication Date:: 01-2023
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The scale of disinformation surrounding the COVID-19 pandemic has been called infodemic. It involved disseminating various messages and theories that had a significant negative impact on limiting the spread of the disease but also exacerbated existing social antagonisms and emboldened and radicalised fringe groups. Infodemic, to a large extent manifested in social media, also fostered the formalisation of denialist circles, who transferred their sometimes very aggressive sentiments from the web to the real world. Negation and contestation of the pandemic were partly born spontaneously but were also created as part of postmodern hybrid activities. Consequently, narratives of infodemic led to difficulties in functioning health services, but above all, to an increase in morbidity and mortality related to COVID-19. The consequences of the infodemic would also include various economic effects, such as increased medical expenses for unvaccinated people or turbulence in the labour market.
Topic:: COVID-19, Disinformation, Misinformation, and Infodemic
Political Geography:: Global Focus

51. Psychosocial Effects of the Pandemic. Stress and Sense of Safety Experienced by Poles During the COVID-19 Pandemic in 2020–2021

Author:: Robert Piec, Barbara Szykuła-Piec, Izabella Helena Grabowska-Lepczak, and Weronika Jakubczak
Publication Date:: 12-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The pandemic that broke out in 2019 had a significant impact on the lives of all social groups around the world. The imposed restrictions and mandatory quarantine were crucial to limit the virus’s spread. The research comprises an analysis of the psychosocial impact exerted by the pandemic that attempted to determine the response to the crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic and its aftermath. For this purpose, a study on social resilience in the pandemic era was worked out. The study consisted of several parts: stress and the sense of safety, education, trust and defined needs and the mass media in COVID-19. The research team decided to present the study’s results in a series of articles that will contribute to forming a complete picture of the community in the context of the analysed variables. The paper is the first in this series. It contains an analysis of variables intended to determine the level of the experienced sense of safety and its constituent, i.e., stress, and the identification of socio-demographic data strongly influencing the studied variables. The study comprised 559 individuals who were surveyed between May 2020 and November 2020 with the use of an online survey questionnaire. SPSS Statistics version 21.0 and PQStat were used to conduct statistical analyses and correlate and assess the correlation of responses. Also used were Chisquare, Fisher’s test and Pearson’s linear correlation coefficient. A logistic regression analysis was carried out for dichotomous variables. The results of the study indicate that the level of experienced stress is influenced by age, place of residence, gender and job security. The sense of safety is inversely correlated with stress, i.e., as stress increases, the sense of safety decreases, indicating a need to undertake appropriate measures to reduce stress. It may be interesting to compare the level of stress with, among other things, information retrieval from different sources. These results will be presented in the subsequent studies.
Topic:: Psychology, Resilience, Community, COVID-19, Stress, and Public Safety
Political Geography:: Europe and Poland

52. International Higher Education as Foreign Policy: Comparing the Strategies of the EU, China, and Russia Towards Central Asia

Author:: Kerry Anne Longhurst, Agnieszka Nitza-Makowska, and Katarzyna Skiert-Andrzejuk
Publication Date:: 12-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The article sheds light on the nexus between higher education and foreign policy. International higher education has become an increasingly prominent element of some states’ policies towards other countries as a flank to traditional foreign policy. It has occurred in Central Asia, where the European Union, China and Russia are all supporting teaching, research and capacity-building activities in the tertiary sectors of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan. Although they employ similar tools and instruments, the assumptions and visions underpinning their respective strategies diverge. Russia’s strategy is shaped by historically informed identity factors and the impulse to entrench predominance in the post-Soviet space, whilst China uses its support for higher education as a soft infrastructure for its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Meanwhile, the EU has integrated higher education into its strategy for the region, which aims at drawing Central Asia closer to its orbit through democratisation and the rule of law.
Topic:: Foreign Policy, European Union, Soft Power, and Higher Education
Political Geography:: Russia, China, and Central Asia

53. Estonia as an Area of Russian Influence: Analysis and Synthesis of the Kremlin’s Methodology of Exerting Influence on Tallinn’s Political and Social Stability

Author:: Jacek Bil
Publication Date:: 03-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: Russia's hostile actions against the Estonian state structures take the form of soft power, which can be observed in such areas as the activities of the Russian-speaking minority, media coverage, or through the use of coercion when it comes to fuel sales. This article presents qualitative methods of measuring Russian influence on Estonia. An observable trend in international relations is replacing hard power with soft power, commonly used against states within the sphere of interest of certain geopolitical entities. It is more difficult to identify the latter and prove it results from an aggressor's deliberate actions. Information warfare, including disinformation and propaganda, is one of the means Russia uses to exert political influence. By accepting the offer of a political and military alliance with the Western world, the Baltic States have become a threat to the Kremlin's imperialist aspirations. Russia's direct military actions against Estonia and the other Baltic states would have provoked a strong reaction and could even have led to military confrontation. However, the Russian government wishes to avoid it and, for the time being, limits itself to soft power measures.
Topic:: Hegemony, Regionalism, Strategic Stability, Foreign Interference, and Influence
Political Geography:: Russia, Europe, Eastern Europe, and Estonia

54. Russia Against Ukraine Before the European Court of Human Rights. The Empire Strikes Back?

Author:: Milena Ingelevic-Citak
Publication Date:: 03-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: In July 2021, Russia submitted its first inter-state complaint against Ukraine to the European Court of Human Rights. It was an unexpected and intriguing step of the Russian government, especially since many of the presented allegations are linked to the events that initiated the Russian-Ukrainian conflict. Referring to the hostilities that began in 2014, the international community was, in principle, unanimous in assessing who the aggressor was. The focus of this research is the strategy of the Russian Federation in its recently initiated legal battle before the Strasbourg Court. This paper presents an attempt to outline the possible motives for taking such a step. Moscow's position on this case is particularly puzzling, as some of the allegations concern the Crimean Peninsula, widely recognized under international law as territory occupied by Russia. In spite of that, doubt arises about the strategic objectives of the Russian authorities in the conflict with Ukraine; the question is whether the actions taken by Russia fall within the scope of its previous strategy or if there has been a new turn in the matter. The first part of this paper outlines the background of the given conflict, the second details Russian policy after the annexation of Crimea, and the third, which is crucial for the formulating of conclusions, presents considerations on Russia's possible motivation and goals in filing a complaint to the European Court Human Rights. The research was conducted mainly based on the merits of the complaint, the statements of the representatives of Russia and Ukraine in the matter, the author's observations, and practitioners' considerations.
Topic:: Security, Conflict, Regionalism, European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), and Russia-Ukraine War
Political Geography:: Russia, Europe, and Ukraine

55. Hybrid Warfare or Hybrid Threat – The Weaponization of Migration as an Example of the Use of Lawfare – Case Study of Poland

Author:: Piotr Lubinski
Publication Date:: 03-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: This article aims to address the issue of alleged hybrid warfare attacks on Lithuania, Latvia, and Poland. The scope of the article covers the Belarus operations conducted in 2021. Firstly, the author addresses the issue of pushing migrants from a descriptive perspective. Secondly, he debates whether Belarus operation was conducted within the scope of hybrid warfare, hybrid threat, and lawfare? The author concludes that the Republic of Belarus has operated lawfare falling within the hybrid threat spectrum. It means that the situation is not to be classified under the law of armed conflict from the perspective of international and non-international armed conflicts and ius ad bellum violation. Thirdly, the author claims that Belarus has violated international law, so certain legal redress is appropriate and justified. Belarus's actions may result in a court proceeding before the International Court of Justice and before other international institutions.
Topic:: Migration, Law, Hybrid Warfare, and Hybrid Threats
Political Geography:: Europe and Poland

56. Psychological Determinants of Individual Radicalisation

Author:: Elzbieta Posluszna
Publication Date:: 03-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The paper aims to define the psychological foundations of lone wolf activism. The analysis that facilitated attaining this goal was based on the Nietzschean concept of resentment theory of compensatory revaluating values that explain the relationships between inferiority and fundamentalism, fanaticism, and ideologically motivated violence. Based on a phenomenological examination of the phenomenon, the author demonstrates that lone wolf activism is founded on two psychologically and sociologically determined successive processes. The first one occurs when a sense of personal inferiority becomes the source of an envy-based hostile attitude toward the world. Later on, this feeling, due to personality defence mechanisms, which bring about the falsification of “primary desires” and the generation of “secondary desires”, transforms into fundamentalism. The second process takes place when, as the result of fundamentalist legitimisation that arise on the level of social rivalry, given fundamentalism is destituted, resulting in fanaticism. The author believes that the knowledge of both processes is necessary to recognise and combat the terrorist activity of lone ideologically motivated individuals.
Topic:: Terrorism, Radicalization, Psychology, Legitimacy, and Social Order
Political Geography:: Global Focus

57. Strategic Ambiguity in US-Taiwan Relations During the Donald Trump Administration

Author:: Filip Grzegorzewski
Publication Date:: 03-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: Strategic ambiguity, or the deliberate policy of uncertainty as to whether the United States would use force to defend Taiwan against an invasion by the People's Republic of China, has been the centrepiece of US policy towards the Taiwan issue for decades. This paper discusses the factors driving the redefinition of strategic ambiguity and its recalibration throughout Donald Trump's presidency (2017–2021). The fundamental driver of this change was to balance the rising power of the People’s Republic of China (PRC). The paper applied offensive realism as a theoretical framework for its analysis. Under President Donald Trump, Washington modified its policy of strategic ambiguity, explicitly framing relations with Taiwan within a broader Indo-Pacific strategy. While the US retained key elements of strategic ambiguity, including the 'One China' policy, it added new features to deploy it offensively against Beijing's growing regional hegemony. The increased dynamism and unpredictability of relations with Taiwan were matched by a welcoming attitude towards strengthening Taiwanese identity and highlighting the systemic differences between communist China and democratic Taiwan. America stepped up arms sales and encouraged Taiwan to build its self-defence capabilities. Washington engaged in countering Chinese attempts to isolate Taiwan internationally and included it in restructuring global supply chains. Although the United States has not formally revised the boundaries of the 'One China' policy, the modification of strategic ambiguity increased Taiwan's prominence in US-China power competition and pushed back the prospect of peaceful unification.
Topic:: Security, International Cooperation, Bilateral Relations, and Leadership
Political Geography:: Taiwan, Asia, North America, and United States of America

58. Extraordinary Legal Measures and Their Application as a Response of States to the First Wave of the COVID-19 Pandemic

Author:: Boguslaw Stanislaw Przywora and Karol Dobrzeniecki
Publication Date:: 03-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The topic of the present article is the response of states to the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic by using extraordinary legal measures provided for in their constitutions and legislation. By reference to the research project's findings, the authors characterise the legal solutions in selected jurisdictions and attempt to demonstrate the relationship between the application of emergency measures and the specific political system of states. By doing so, the authors consider such factors as the territory, population, or type of political regime.
Topic:: Governance, Pandemic, COVID-19, Health Crisis, and Legal Sector
Political Geography:: Global Focus

59. European Security Management at the National Level. A Comparative Analysis of Strategies for the Development of Defence Capability in the United Kingdom and Poland

Author:: Joanna Iwancz and Bartłomiej H. Toszek
Publication Date:: 03-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The article presents the positions of the UK and Polish governments on the importance of European security management as a factor influencing and shaping the defence doctrine in both states. Building on the systemic nature of European security, security management concepts, as defined in UK and Poland’s strategies for developing defence capabilities, have been examined using a system analysis. The assessment of the issue from the perspective of the UK and Polish governments is based on a decision-making analysis, while differences in the approach to European security are demonstrated through a comparative method. The authors have shown that the actual perception of European security as part of the global order is a factor determining the current involvement of the UK Government in the process of security management. However, the Polish government has shown interest in similar actions only to the extent these are convergent with national security.
Topic:: Security, Defense Policy, Military Strategy, and Governance
Political Geography:: United Kingdom, Europe, and Poland

60. Ancillary Units as a Tool of Sublocal Governance in the Polish Major Cities

Author:: Malgorzata Madej
Publication Date:: 03-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: After the post-communist transition, decentralisation and subsidiarity have become one of Poland's major principles of political organisation. Moreover, especially the original 1990 reform and establishment of self-governing communes are regarded as a success story, not only in improving the quality of governance and public service provision but also in the civil society and citizen participation, as evidenced by the development of modern urban movements. The article explores legal possibilities for further decentralisation of municipalities, analysing the role of ancillary units in regional capitals. Ancillary units in Poland have developed differently in the countryside and urban communes. Relying on publicly available information and data provided by the respective municipal offices, the article describes the ancillary units' statutory role, competencies, and actual activities. The findings enable the assessment of the application of the sublocal decentralisation solution in Polish cities and the identification of its benefits and shortcomings.
Topic:: Civil Society, Governance, Urban, Local, and Post-Soviet Space
Political Geography:: Europe and Poland

61. Forms of the Government Administration’s Impact on the Activities of Local Governments During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Author:: Maciej Serowaniec and Piotr Paczka
Publication Date:: 03-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The primary burden of tackling the pandemic COVID-19 lies with the state as the entity responsible for protecting the health and life of its citizens. Hence, it can be argued that the focus of the pandemic-induced changes to the Polish legal order was on administrative law, which not only sets out the principles of the functioning of the State as the executive power but also governs the relations between the government, local government and citizens, which had to be significantly modified during the pandemic. It would be impossible to analyse and discuss all the emergency measures that appeared in Poland’s administrative law due to the threats posed by the pandemic. The subject matter of the present study is the analysis of the legal solutions adopted in the Republic of Poland in the sphere of public law in connection with the spread of the virus and particular provisions shaping relationships between the two basic structural branches of Polish public administration, viz. the government administration and the local-government administration. The following part of this study will accordingly be devoted to the analysis of the legislative solution contained in Article 11h of the COVID-19 Act, establishing a legal framework for issuing binding instructions to, among others, the various bodies of local governments, local-government legal persons and local-government organisational entities without legal personality.
Topic:: Governance, Leadership, Local, Pandemic, and COVID-19
Political Geography:: Europe and Poland

62. Risks and Benefits of i-Voting in Public Opinion: Evidence from Poland

Author:: Izabela Kapsa and Magdalena Musial-Karg
Publication Date:: 03-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: Apart from benefits, internet voting security is most frequently discussed by opponents and supporters of this form of electoral participation. Although this voting method is not available in Poland, the debate on the implementation of i-voting appears in each election. The COVID-19 pandemic showed a great need to implement additional remote voting methods in the elections, and increasingly more countries are considering the introduction of i-vote in the future. Although there is no plan for the nearest future in Poland, citizens' opinions suggest that this voting procedure would meet many of its users. The paper's main aim is to analyse Poles' opinions about the risks and benefits of internet voting. The results of our own studies are based on a survey among Poles regarding their views on internet voting. The main goal is to verify if Poles more often highlight the benefits than risks of i-voting, and if the opinions about risks and benefits of i-voting differ depending on respondents’ sex, age, education and domicile.
Topic:: Security, Elections, Voting, Innovation, and Political Participation
Political Geography:: Europe and Poland

63. Cities, Transnational Law, and COVID-19

Author:: Agnieszka Szpak and Joanna Modrzynska
Publication Date:: 03-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: This paper aims to point to the transition from international law to transnational law that, on the one hand, is caused, and on the other, is strengthened by the growing role of cities in the fight against COVID-19. Various interactions between cities and other international actors give rise to new trends and challenges on the international plane. One of such terms, transnational law, refers to developments beyond the nation-state and includes “all law which regulates actions or events that transcend national frontiers”. It is characterized by a plurality of overlapping normative systems and a growing role of new actors in the international arena, which are cities. The authors give examples of cities bypassing or complementing states with special emphasis on European cities (Polish including) as well as of cities’ transnational cooperation to fight COVID-19 pandemic, filling the gaps in inter-governmental multilateral cooperation.
Topic:: transnationalism, Cities, Pandemic, and COVID-19
Political Geography:: Europe

64. Migration and Foreign Aid as Factors Restraining Regional Cooperation in the South Pacific

Author:: Joanna Siekiera
Publication Date:: 06-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: Cooperation in the South Pacific region is unique due to the characteristics of its participants. Following the period of decolonization (1962-1980), countries in Oceania have radically changed. Achieving independence gave those nations international legal personality, yet complete independence from their former colonial powers. The following consequence was gaining an opportunity to draft, adopt and execute own laws in national and foreign policy. PICT (Pacific island countries and territories) have been expanding connections, political and trade ones, within the region since the 1960s when permanent migration of islanders and intra-regional transactions began. Migrations along with foreign aid are considered as the distinctive characteristics of the Pacific Ocean basin. Since the 1980s, the regional integration in Oceania, through establishing regional groupings and increasing the regional trade agreements number, took on pace and scope. The MIRAB synthetic measure (migration, remittances, aid, bureaucracy) has been used in analyzing the Oceania developing microeconomies. Last but not least, migration and foreign aid have been retaining the region from a deeper and more effective stage of regionalism.
Topic:: Migration, Regional Cooperation, Foreign Aid, and Regionalism
Political Geography:: Oceania and South Pacific

65. COVID-19 as a Green Light for the Regeneration of ISIS’ Forces in North-East Syria

Author:: Oskar Schaefer
Publication Date:: 07-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: Following the fall of the so-called Islamic State in March 2019, tens of thousands of its fighters, along with their wives and children, were captured and detained in facilities controlled by Syrian Democratic Forces in northeast Syria. Many of which were European. Based on the information provided by scientific institutes and journalists, the outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic had had a significant impact on the functioning of those facilities. Not only did it aggravate an already severe humanitarian crisis, pushing the detainees to reinforce their attempts of escaping and rioting against the guards, but it also lowered the security level in the controlled facilities, allowing a flourishing of criminal activities. Furthermore, the detainment of ISIS followers turned into a political game between the Kurdish coalition and the United States. The global health crisis put to the test the strategy of many Western governments of keeping European ISIS fighters in the Middle East while pressuring the international community to rethink its approach towards this crescent problem.
Topic:: Military Strategy, ISIS, Pandemic, and COVID-19
Political Geography:: Middle East and Syria

66. Selected Problems of Security Control in Civil Aviation Based on Own Empirical Research

Author:: Gabriel Nowacki and Bohdan Paszukow
Publication Date:: 06-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The paper refers to the evolution of methods, new technologies, and devices in security control processes in light of civil aviation requirements, procedures, and increased flow of passengers. The research problem has been defined as follows: How shall the international airport security controls function in the context of regulatory and operational conditions and current and future threats? In reference to the problem, the research hypothesis was defined as follows: Security control in civil aviation consists of screening persons and detecting prohibited articles and mainly depends on the professional competence of security staff and the proper selection and maintenance of electronic assistive devices. Professional competences refer to personnel’s knowledge, experience, qualification, monitoring, operational supervision, and quality control as part of their tasks. The development of new technologies requires the appropriate selection, commensurate with risk analysis, of electronic assistive devices, including equipment, methods, technical means, and their maintenance in a proper technical condition. The paper presents the results of empirical research conducted amongst experienced aviation security forums. Because of its complexity and unpredictability, this problem still leaves a wide margin for improvement and efficiency. The following research methods were used to solve the research problem: theoretical methods and empirical methods: diagnostic survey and expert interview.
Topic:: Security, Science and Technology, Terrorism, and Aviation
Political Geography:: Global Focus

67. Indo–French Defence Cooperation in the Light of Regional Security Balance in South Asia

Author:: Mukesh Shankar Bharti
Publication Date:: 06-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The article aims to describe the regional security challenges to India in South Asia. Since the partition of India in 1947, the country has continuously been under external threat as a form of proxy warfare and terrorism. For this purpose, the article highlighted the core hotspots where India has major border issues with China in the Himalayan terrain. India has been facing a bigger security challenge from China and Pakistan in the South Asia region. This article analyses the defence ties between India and France in the context of security. India's neorealist approaches expand its strategic partnership in global politics. Therefore, India has been getting strategic support from the French side whenever India seeks support in a critical situation. The article uses the methods of case study and discourse analysis to answer the question and find out the study's relevance. As a result of severe security threats, India had to negotiate the purchase of defence equipment from France. India had to buy Rafael fighter jet, submarine and other heavy military weapons. Indo-French relations are stronger than in the past and will develop as friendly relations in the future.
Topic:: Security, Defense Policy, Diplomacy, Bilateral Relations, and Regionalism
Political Geography:: South Asia, Indonesia, Asia, and France

68. The Europeanisation of the Local Self-Government in the South Caucasus

Author:: Rafal Czachor
Publication Date:: 06-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The following paper employs a normative approach and focuses on the problem of the current state of the local self-government in the South Caucasus countries: Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. Since all these countries are members of the Council of Europe, a reference point for decentralisation is the European Charter of Local Self-Government. The paper's main thesis is that despite showing some similarities, the countries have introduced different models of decentralisation that do not fully meet the Council of Europe’s criteria. Such variation is in line with the different political systems of these states and their level of democratisation. The more democratic the state is, the stronger the decentralisation it has adopted. Thus, decentralisation in Georgia follows the European model of public policy, while Azerbaijan is preserving the former Soviet model of weak self-government, with central authorities playing the leading role in public services. The current changes in Armenia’s model resemble the Georgian track of reforms. The findings of this paper may be applicable both in further theoretical research and in implementing reforms of local self-government in various post-Soviet states.
Topic:: Governance, Europeanization, Local, and Influence
Political Geography:: Europe, Caucasus, and South Caucasus

69. Hydrogen and Its Role in Post-Pandemic Recovery. Case Study of Portugal

Author:: Maciej Giers
Publication Date:: 06-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The article aims to analyse the potential role that hydrogen could play in the post-pandemic recovery of Portugal and its climate policy. The article focuses on reducing greenhouse gas emissions and creating new workplaces. The basis for analysis is the Portuguese hydrogen strategy, published in May 2020 and other strategic documents. In the first part of the article, climate goals adopted by the European Union and Portugal are described and analysed. Then the hydrogen strategy of Portugal was analysed from the perspective of hydrogen contribution to the emission reduction by 2030. The article describes the role of hydrogen in the Portuguese economy, paying particular attention to the 2020–2030 horizon, but also covers a period till 2040. The second part analyses the impact of COVID-19 on the Portuguese economy. Based on the International Energy Agency’s estimates, the potential for creating new workplaces is described.
Topic:: Climate Change, Recovery, Pandemic, COVID-19, Hydrogen, and Green Transition
Political Geography:: Europe and Portugal

70. University Participatory Budgets. From Municipalities to Higher Education?

Author:: Mariusz Poplawski
Publication Date:: 06-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The participatory budget is an important element of the catalogue of tools for involving residents in the local decision-making. The positive effects of involving many citizens in the decision-making process slowly bear fruit in attempts to transfer p.b. into other spheres. This article analyses how these well-known patterns are adapted to new conditions – at universities. Several of them decided to introduce their own participatory budget. A comparative analysis of the local government model and solutions adopted by three universities provides the answer to this question. The hypothesis assumes that the civic budget at universities and polytechnics is, for the most part, a modification of the model used in cities with district status. As shown, the municipal participatory budget is a proven basis for creating its own regulations. However, the available schemes should be modified.
Topic:: Economics, Higher Education, Participation, and Schools
Political Geography:: Europe and Poland

71. The Legality of the Restrictions of the Civil and Political Rights in Poland During the First Wave of the Coronavirus Pandemic

Author:: Anna Utrata
Publication Date:: 06-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: This article aims to answer the question about the legality of the selected measures implemented by the Polish government during the first wave of the coronavirus pandemic, which resulted in constitutional rights and freedom restrictions. The study focuses on examining selected restrictions implemented in the spring of 2020 in the light of the Polish Constitution, especially in the light of Article 31 (3), which defines the premises of limitation of citizens’ rights and freedoms. It indicates the lack of legal basis and incompatibility with constitutional premises of many restrictions. The study further examines the premises of the introduction of the state of emergency, indicating that the government's decision not to impose such a state was legal and why. The study considers legal status from March 13 to May 16, 2020.
Topic:: Politics, Civil Rights, Pandemic, and COVID-19
Political Geography:: Europe and Poland

72. The Role of Material Stocks in the National Security System

Author:: Malgorzata Grzelak
Publication Date:: 09-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The article consists of two parts. The first part describes the essence of the national security system and its structure. Using the Ishikawa diagram and the value chain, the authors presented the shortcomings of the national security system and a sequence of actions that can improve it. The second part of the article is devoted to material stocks and their role in the analyzed system. The survey research presented in this part of the article confirmed the importance of material stockpiles in ensuring national security. In addition, the research highlighted the need for government organizations to cooperate in the continuous replenishment of material stocks during a crisis.
Topic:: Security, Defense Policy, National Security, Pandemic, and COVID-19
Political Geography:: Global Focus

73. Eurocentrism in Samuel P. Huntington’s Concept of the Clash of Civilisations

Author:: Mateusz Kuflinski
Publication Date:: 06-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The article is dedicated to an issue of Eurocentrism in American political scientist Samuel P. Huntington’s concept of the clash of civilisations. The arguments presented indicate that Huntington’s concept is pure Eurocentric. I start by mentioning a few of Huntington’s critics (Noam Chomsky, Samir Amin, Arjun Appadurai, and John M. Hobson). The next step includes analysing in detail the “Eurocentrism anatomy” and presenting Eurocentrism as a phenomenon based on two axes, which I call “materialistic” and “epistemological”. In other words, Eurocentrism is a kind of spectrum. Thanks to that, I compare Huntington’s concept with facts from literature embedded in both axes. Apart from other arguments, Eurocentric factors in the clash of civilisations are 1) civilisations in the past, 2) origin of the West, 3) demographic argument, and 4) the downfall of the West. I argue that the clash of civilisations is based on false, Eurocentric assumptions and prejudices.
Topic:: Imperialism, Neoconservatism, and Eurocentrism
Political Geography:: Europe

74. The Role of Think Tanks in Actions for Defence Diplomacy. An Example of Poland

Author:: Sabina Olszyk
Publication Date:: 09-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: With the end of the 20th century, there was a change in the nature and methods of using military force in international politics. It led to the need to develop new cooperation methods between states and reorient military diplomacy into defence diplomacy. In the new reality, the group of entities influencing diplomatic activities has been expanded to include non-governmental entities, including think tanks. It raised questions about the role of expert centres in activities for defence diplomacy under Polish conditions, including shaping the international situation and shaping the state's defence policy. The following considerations are an attempt to answer this question. The analysis was based on the data obtained from a survey and information from the websites of fifteen Polish centres of expertise operating in international relations, political science, and security and defence.
Topic:: Defense Policy, Diplomacy, Think Tanks, NGOs, and Public-Private Partnership
Political Geography:: Europe and Poland

75. How Has the Coronavirus Affected Polish Criminal Law?

Author:: Weronika Stawinska
Publication Date:: 06-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: This paper aims to indicate the changes in Polish criminal law introduced in the COVID-19 acts. The text identifies the new regulations of most importance to society. For this reason, the initial focus is on the issue of suspension of procedural time limits and some substantive law time limits from the Criminal Code. It must be stated that, from the perspective of the legal certainty principle, precisely these provisions are of the most significant importance for the defendant. Next, the changes in the Electronic tagging concerning the possibility of interrupting the execution of an imprisonment sentence and serving an imprisonment sentence were discussed. From a criminal policy point of view, higher penalties for the offences of exposure to infection and stalking should also have been mentioned. A new offence of particularly aggravated theft has appeared in the Penal Code and a new offence of obstructing a Police or Border Guard officer in performing official duties. For a more effective fight, it is also vital to provide for the possibility of imposing a new preventive measure and confiscating objects important to public health. The indicated legal developments are presented in the context of human rights protection and in light of recent literature and judicial decisions.
Topic:: Law Enforcement, Law, Pandemic, COVID-19, and Health Crisis
Political Geography:: Europe and Poland

76. Exploratory Study upon Military Leadership in the 21st Century. What Are Skills and Knowledge Required for Leadership Success?

Author:: Fabian Boettcher
Publication Date:: 07-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: Within the context of increasingly digital work, it appeared interesting to look at how military leaders and their leadership style will have to adapt to remain “up-to-speed” with current challenges. It is qualitative research based on interviews with military and civilian experts. Four interviews have been conducted, but there would be the potential to interview many more experts and look deeper into the matter. Within the context of digitalised military leadership, the importance of communication and mutual trust has been underscored by the experts. They agreed that leaders nowadays must embrace digital developments and include them in their leadership styles. The civilian world can learn from the military when it comes to leadership approaches, which is happening at the time of publication of this article with practical examples (senior military leaders assigned to lead the pandemic task force in some countries). Overall, the outcome of the research is that a relevant and resilient military leadership style in the 21st century resembles the elements of the situational leadership style developed by Hersey-Blanchard.
Topic:: Military Strategy, Leadership, Civil-Military Relations, and Digitalization
Political Geography:: Global Focus

77. "I Am Not Going”: Determinants of Social Activity before Poland’s Ghost Election

Author:: Kamila Rezmer-Płotka
Publication Date:: 09-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The article analyses political opposition toward the date of presidential elections and conducting them in the correspondence form on May 10, 2020, in Poland. The study is embedded in the theories of quasi-militant democracy and the emergence of social movements. The method used in the study is the qualitative analysis of media messages of the main news websites in Poland. Mainly in terms of the activity and arguments of citizens against the elections in the form of correspondence. The presidential elections revealed the imperious relationship between the government and citizens in Poland’s becoming quasimilitant democracy. The emphasis was on the elements regarding the organisation of elections on May 10 that could impact a social movement’s emergence. The most significant role in stopping the May 10 elections was played by institutional opposition in the form of local self-governments’ civil disobedience and the Senate’s action, which efficiently blocked the party’s initiative. The article accounts for how election matters determined the social mobilisation and activity of the new social movement. This paper’s main finding is that institutional opposition may prevail over the social one in the pandemic.
Topic:: Politics, Elections, Democracy, and Social Order
Political Geography:: Europe and Poland

78. The Russian Federation Dominance in the International Security Environment

Author:: Miroslaw Banasik
Publication Date:: 09-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: This article presents the research results, which set out to explain the mechanisms leading to the achievement of dominance by the Russian Federation in the international security environment. In the research process, the systemic approach was applied. Analysis and criticism of the literature, non-participatory observation and case study elements were used to solve the research problems. As a result, it was determined that the theoretical basis for the Russian Federation's achievement of international dominance is the concept of new generation war. The model of the strategic influence of the Russian Federation is directed at the shaping of the security environment and includes the synchronisation of kinetic and non-kinetic measures, indirect and direct effects, the blurring of the boundaries between war and peace and the application of pressure and aggression. The Russian Federation achieves strategic dominance through asymmetry, chaos, reflexive control, and strategic deterrence. Armed forces provide a key role in asserting dominance, focused on conducting offensive activities and inflicting losses with conventional and nuclear weapons.
Topic:: Security, Military Strategy, Hegemony, Influence, and Foreign Assistance
Political Geography:: Russia and Europe

79. Social Credit System in the People’s Republic of China. Theoretical Assumption and Implementation

Author:: Maciej Walkowski
Publication Date:: 09-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: In the European Union, the United States and other countries of the so-called Western world, the perception of the functionalities of AI, and other instruments of Industrial Revolution 4.0 significantly differs from its perception by the PRC’s authorities, which – for a few years – have been implementing solutions aimed at comprehensive scrutiny and social supervision rather than facilitating life and work. This idea has been reflected in the so-called Social Credit System since at least 2014 and has given rise to plenty of controversies and disputes, unfortunately based on emotions and imprecise interpretation of the characteristics, aims, and implementation of the project rather than knowledge. While the new, digital model of social management in China is extensively discussed in the literature, it is rarely addressed in Polish studies, which results in the scarcity of publications on this subject. This paper attempts to fill this gap by presenting the essence of the system and the progress of its implementation.
Topic:: Economics, Hegemony, Artificial Intelligence, and Credit
Political Geography:: China and Asia

80. Artificial Intelligence v. Personal Data

Author:: Katarzyna Chalubinska-Jentkiewicz and Monika Nowikowska
Publication Date:: 09-2022
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The world is constantly changing under the influence of new technologies. Artificial intelligence systems are currently used in many areas of human activity. Such systems are increasingly assigned the tasks of collecting and analysing personal data. The areas successfully using AI include transport, medicine, trade, marketing, and others. The number of these areas increases proportionally with the advancement of technology. We can process vast amounts of data and analyse it using IA. It is, of course, big data that sits at the heart of AI. As computing systems generally have grown in power and capacity, data consumption has grown exponentially.
Topic:: Science and Technology, Innovation, Artificial Intelligence, and Data
Political Geography:: Global Focus

81. Manifestations of Chinese Development Aid and Its Hidden Meanings

Author:: Anna Kobierecka
Publication Date:: 01-2021
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The People’s Republic of China is one of the states focusing intensively on building its soft power and shaping its international image. However, China’s image is still negative and primarily based on stereotypes. In recent years, this country is willing to change such perceptions and present itself as an efficient, intensively developing, capable country that is much more than just a global production plant. The article aims to review China’s different manifestations of development aid regarding changing this type of public diplomacy and its meaning to the Chinese government. Is it only motivated by good intentions, or maybe its goal is to only provide an advantage to China? It is evident that owing to significant development, China needs to expand its economic contacts. However, the tested hypothesis states that behind Chinese development aid, political motivation is hidden as well. The research is based on content analysis of official documents and Foreign Ministry’s statements referring to development aid.
Topic:: Development, Diplomacy, International Cooperation, and Development Aid
Political Geography:: China and Asia

82. Space Traffic Management (STM) – Legal Aspects

Author:: Malgorzata Polkowska
Publication Date:: 01-2021
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: Space Traffic Management (STM) is a new concept referring to space activities. The highest priority is the safety and security of outer space and all conducted operations. There is no definition of STM. There is an urgent need to regulate STM providing safety and security regulations at the international, regional, and national levels. Because there is no STM definition, the regulator might use the example of existing regulations of the International Civil Aviation Organization on Air Traffic Management (ATM). European EUSST is a good example of being a “precursor” of STM. However, many questions are still open regarding specific regulations needed to create an STM system, such as at which level they should be made: globally, regionally, or nationally.
Topic:: International Cooperation, Territorial Disputes, Governance, and Space
Political Geography:: Global Focus

83. The Emotional Backdrop of Legal Discourses in South China Sea Disputes

Author:: Eric Pomes and Jean-Marc Coicaud
Publication Date:: 01-2021
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The China Sea connects as many coastal states as it divides due to the economic and strategic challenges it represents. It also embodies an area of confrontations between the Great American and Chinese strategies. Identifying with precision the differences that arise requires an interest in the symbolic dimensions that surround them. This angle of analysis provides an opportunity to observe the functioning of international law and inevitably leads to a discussion of the emerging international order. The literature on the situation in the China Sea abounds. The paper’s singularity is to approach it under the prism of international law as revealing the psychology of an actor. To carry out this research, the authors use a pragmatic and critical approach to international law. The thesis defended shows that, contrary to a positivist and judicial approach to international law, elements exogenous to the law, the history, and the psychology of an actor, influence the interpretation of existing norms.
Topic:: International Law, Territorial Disputes, Maritime, and Conflict
Political Geography:: Asia and South China Sea

84. Do IT Tools Help Develop Community Policing? Lessons Learned from the Implementation of The National Security Threat Map in Poland

Author:: Robert Gawlowski, Mariusz Kubiak, Juliusz Piwowarski, and Dariusz Minikiewicz
Publication Date:: 01-2021
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: In many countries, the police, as a part of public administration, have witnessed many changes during the last few years. This article explores the process of the reform of the Polish police force, which took place between 2015 and 2017. Doing so examines in detail the process of implementing an IT tool – The National Security Threat Map – by paying particular attention to the mechanism of engaging external stakeholders. This study is conceptual but empirically focused. The paper posits that, despite the hierarchical nature of the police administration structure, it is possible to build an engagement of external stakeholders.
Topic:: Security, National Security, Cybersecurity, Police, and Information Technology
Political Geography:: Europe and Poland

85. Cybersecurity Politics – Conceptualization of the Idea

Author:: Marek Gorka
Publication Date:: 01-2021
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The cybersecurity issue discussed in the paper is seen from the perspective of political science with the indication that the subject under discussion concerns the multifaceted nature of the state’s actions, which consists of political, economic, social, and cultural factors. At the same time, the work also intends to prove that cybersecurity is not only a domain of technology because it is the mentioned aspects that shape the conditions of stable development of the state and its citizens in a space dominated by cyber technology in a much more decisive way. Given the growing role of cybertechnology in almost all areas of human life, its importance also forces and inspires political science to question the shape and model of modern policy, which is significantly evolving under the influence of new technologies. On the one hand, emerging cyber threats reveal the weakness of the state and the dependence of state institutions on cybertechnologies, but on the other hand, existing cyber incidents may also motivate many governments to take action to increase the level of cybersecurity.
Topic:: Security, International Cooperation, Politics, Cybersecurity, and Conflict
Political Geography:: Global Focus

86. African Great Lakes Region: Governance and Politics

Author:: Wioleta Gierszewska and Benjamin Mudaheranwa
Publication Date:: 01-2021
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: This article aims to indicate the sources of problems in the field of governance and politics in the African Great Lakes Region. The countries of this region play an essential role in the global socio-political and economic system. Their development is hampered by numerous external and internal conflicts resulting from both the historical and contemporary problems of the countries. Colonialism had a major impact on the development of African countries. It manifested itself, among other things, in the spread of political domination. Adopting state management patterns from European culture and attempt to transplant them on African ground without understanding local cultural conditions contributed too much post-colonial fresh and modern conflict. Examples of this are failures to establish liberal democracy and its crises in the African Great Lakes Region.
Topic:: Environment, Politics, Post Colonialism, Regional Cooperation, Governance, and Democracy
Political Geography:: Africa

87. Competition for High Politics in Cyberspace: Technological Conflicts Between China and the USA

Author:: Karina Veronica Val Sanchez and Nezir Akyeşilmen
Publication Date:: 01-2021
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: This paper highlighted the use of cyberspace as a conflict zone by the US and China, focusing on competition in various technological spheres, including cyberespionage, military technology, and Artificial Intelligence (AI). The main purpose of this study was to depict how great powers manipulate the cyber domain for their high political objectives through US-China rivalry. The research has been carried out mainly via literature review, discourse analysis, and relevant statistics. Consistent with previous literature and global public perception, the outcome has shown that both states are using cyberspace as a new domain for completion in trade, technology, and military purposes. Cyberespionage, the militarization of cyberspace, and AI have been the main conflict areas between these two global competitors in the last decade.
Topic:: Security, Science and Technology, Military Strategy, Cybersecurity, Conflict, Strategic Competition, and Information Technology
Political Geography:: China, Asia, North America, and United States of America

88. Maritime Biodiversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) from the French Perspective

Author:: Joanna Siekiera
Publication Date:: 01-2021
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: Sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea became a key topic for the negotiations since the 2012 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in Rio de Janeiro. Ocean change is now the most significant threat facing humanity, especially those living in coastal areas. The possible and already observed loss of territory, and thus sovereignty of the submerged states, is not the only legal consequence of ocean change happening now, in the 21st century. Another factor is the downsizing of Exclusive Economic Zones, which implies political tensions between the neighboring countries, both sovereign and dependent territories of the former colonial powers. France is present in the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean via its overseas collectivities. Thus, instead of being at the 45th position in the world’s ranking of the ocean powers, the Republic of France comes in the second position, straight after the United States of America. This high and indeed precious position, both geostrategically and economically, affects its views toward the United Nations negotiations process on biological diversity beyond national jurisdiction.
Topic:: Maritime, Diversity, Oceans and Seas, and Territory
Political Geography:: Europe and France

89. Mass Migration as a Hybrid Threat? – A Legal Perspective

Author:: Sascha Dov Bachmann and Anthony Paphiti
Publication Date:: 01-2021
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: Migration as a weapon sounds like a policy statement by resurgent nationalistic parties (and governments) in the West. However, politics and the human cost aside, what if an adversary (both state and non-state actor) does exploit the current global crisis of mass migration due to globalization, war, and political unrest? This article will look at the ongoing mass migration to the European Union within the wider security context of the so-called hybrid threats and/or ‘grey zone’ tactics. It looks at the various legal categories of migration as how the law can be weaponized as so-called ‘lawfare’ to undermine the existing legal frameworks distinguishing between legal and illegal migration. The authors recognize the possibility that this article will be used as an argument by the political actors involved for their nationalistic and anti-migration politics and policies. Yet, we believe that the potential of abusing the current vacuum for political gains along ideological party lines makes it necessary to provide a wider legal-security focused perspective on mass migration.
Topic:: Security, Migration, Immigration, Law, Border Control, and Humanitarian Crisis
Political Geography:: Global Focus

90. Social Policy Programme “The Family 500+” – Assumptions, Results, and Costs of Functioning: Is It Worth?

Author:: Anna Owczarcyk
Publication Date:: 01-2021
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The unfavorable demographic situation and the falling number of births resulted in an increased interest among Polish politicians in introducing tools to social policy that would reverse this negative trend. Implemented to social policy by Prawo i Sprawiedliwość Party in 2016, the “Family 500+” benefit has become such a tool. According to the government’s intention, this financial aid for families with children aims to reverse the decline in the number of births observed for many years and reduce the scale of poverty among families with the most complex financial situation. After several years of the “Family 500+” Program in force, it is difficult to clearly define whether the goals were achieved and whether the expenses for financing the program were adequate to the results. The aim of the article is an attempt at the assessment of the functioning of the Family 500+ Programme. Both the statutory assumptions of the programme, the costs of its functioning, and its results so far were analyzed. The central part of the analysis covered the period 2016–2019.
Topic:: Poverty, Children, Social Policy, and Welfare
Political Geography:: Europe and Poland

91. Democratic Backsliding in Poland on Example Drafts Amendments in Electoral Code During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Author:: Maciej Skrzypek
Publication Date:: 01-2021
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The COVID-19 pandemic occurred in Poland during the campaign before the presidential election scheduled for May 10. This non-military threat changed the election campaign’s dynamics, leading to an unprecedented failure to hold elections and postponing them. Around the changes in the election procedure, many constitutionalists and political scientists voiced their inconsistency with the law and the provisions of the Constitutional Tribunal. Both the proposed provisions and the manner of their organization raised objections. The article classifies these changes as manifestations of democratic backsliding, weakening democratic institutions and leading to a decline in the quality of democracy. The research goal is to analyze the records in the selected source material and relate them to the selected theoretical category (democratic backsliding). In the course of the research, the following hypothesis is verified: in the face of the COVID-19 epidemic in Poland, attempts by the ruling elite to change the provisions related to organizing the presidential elections scheduled for May 10 are an example of democratic backsliding, which, by weakening democratic institutions, has threatened the constitutional provisions and the essence of the democratic system.
Topic:: Elections, Democracy, Constitution, Public Health, Pandemic, and COVID-19
Political Geography:: Europe and Poland

92. The Teacher and the Idea of Society 5.0 – Initial Diagnosis of the Problem

Author:: Beata Pitula
Publication Date:: 01-2021
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The primary aim of this article is to present the results and research findings of a pilot study on teachers’ attitudes manifested toward the idea of society 5.0. The study is a part of one of the priority research areas of the Silesian University of Technology – Processes automation and Industry 4.0. in terms of the socio-cultural and methodological implications of Industry 4.0. Eighty-four teachers participated in the research and completed the questionnaire electronically. The research bores the characteristics of a preliminary diagnosis of the problem. Hence, the collected empirical material does not allow the formulation of methodologically valid conclusions. However, it may constitute a “voice in the discussion” on the preparation of teachers for the inevitable change of the role of the school and the teacher in the new society.
Topic:: Civil Society, Academia, Teaching, and Public Schools
Political Geography:: Global Focus

93. The Boundaries of Jerusalem

Author:: Gideon Biger
Publication Date:: 01-2021
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: Earlier this year, President Donald Trump presented his Peace Plan for Israel and the Palestinians. The plan also dealt with the future boundaries of Jerusalem. Jerusalem is the only city ruled by a sovereign regime, the State of Israel, which declared Jerusalem as its Capital city and draw its boundary lines. Except for the US, the status and boundaries of Jerusalem are not accepted by any other international or national entity. Only the United States, which accepts Jerusalem as the capital city of Israel, agreed to accept its Israeli declared boundaries. Jerusalem’s status and boundaries stand at the core of the dispute between Israel and the Palestinian Authority, which wishes to restore the pre-1967 line. The city of Jerusalem was divided during the years 1948-1967 between Israel and Jordan. The Palestinian Authority thus calls for a separation of Jerusalem between two independent states. Today, Jerusalem has an urban boundary that serves partly as a separating line between Israel and the Palestinian Autonomy, but most countries do not accept the present boundaries, and its future permanent line and status are far from establishing. Jerusalem is a unique city. This article presents a brief history that should help understanding its uniqueness.
Topic:: International Cooperation, Territorial Disputes, Conflict, and Urban
Political Geography:: Israel, Palestine, and Jerusalem

94. Why Did Italian Democracy Become Vulnerable? Theorizing the Change from Neo- to Quasi-Militant Democracy

Author:: Joanna Rak
Publication Date:: 01-2021
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: Embedded in scholarship on militant democracy, this research aims to explain how Italian legislation was positioned to militant democratic measures and how this changed over time. Drawing on the qualitative source analysis and the explanatory frameworks of democratic vulnerability tests two competing theory-grounded assumptions. While the first one assumes that Italian democracy became vulnerable when traditional militant democracy instruments were outmoded, the second considers the misuse or abandonment of those means with social consent as the source of vulnerability. The crisis-induced socioeconomic inequality and uncertainty weakened the Italian political nation. As a result, the latter supported populists in return for a promise of political change. The anti-democratic legal means employed to extend power competencies and prevent the exchange of ruling parties were the way to and the costs of the expected political change. At the same time, the political nation became unable to self-organize to strengthen democracy self-defense. As a result, Italians co-produced a quasi-militant democracy that turned vulnerable because militant democracy measures were misused or not used with the consent of Italians that relinquished their political subjectivity in favor of the Northern League and the Five Star Movement.
Topic:: Sovereignty, Democracy, Legislation, and Militant Democracy
Political Geography:: Europe and Italy

95. Parliamentary Parties and the Anti-Abortion Laws in Poland (1991–2019)

Author:: Krzysztof Kowalczyk
Publication Date:: 01-2021
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: This article aims to analyze the approach of Polish parliamentary parties to the anti-abortion legislation in 1991-2019 on the level of their ideological programmes. Classification of political parties concerning their ideological families has been proposed. Next, the article presents a typology based on the party’s attitude to the discussed problem, distinguishing the following categories of parties: the proponents of apportioning, the opponents of abortion, heterogeneous parties, and parties that do not express an opinion on this issue.
Topic:: Gender Issues, Governance, Legislation, Parliamentarism, and Abortion
Political Geography:: Europe and Poland

96. The Role of Islam in Indonesian Foreign Policy: A Case of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono Introduction

Author:: Aisyah Mumary Songbatumis
Publication Date:: 01-2021
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: As Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono won the 2004 presidential election, it marked the end of Indonesia’s democratic transition era and experienced a dynamic change in foreign policy. The new international identity that viewed Islam as an asset was introduced by SBY, emphasizing the importance of moderate Islam as opposing extremism. The phenomenon of Islamic influence was not only the result of democratic consolidation domestically but also external factors such as the aftermath of 9/11 that portrayed Muslims as potential terrorists. For this reason, Indonesian foreign policy attempted to diminish such misconceptions and tried to be a peacemaker or a mediator in Muslim-related issues globally. To contextualize the analysis, the study focuses on the influence of Islam in Indonesian foreign policy towards the Palestinian-Israeli conflict and Pakistan. The mutual aspirations on the Palestinian statehood shared by both the government and the Muslim elements in society could be found, while religious sentiments were noticeable, as shown by the Muslim groups. In contrast, the influence of Islam in Indonesia-Pakistan relations, especially regarding the Kashmir dispute, was absent due to the difference in views of the government and the Muslim groups and constraining factors, including Indonesia’s national interest priority.
Topic:: Diplomacy, International Cooperation, Religion, Democracy, and Strategic Interests
Political Geography:: Indonesia and Asia

97. Latvia as the Area of Correlated Russian “Hard Power” and “Soft Power” Operations

Author:: Gabriel Nowacki
Publication Date:: 01-2021
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: This work presents the methodology of the Russian impact on Latvia after 1991. It defines and specifies the scope of methods concerning both the hard and soft power in international relations in the 21st century, particularly the ones used to implement the Russian Federation’s foreign policy. The implemented strategies and impact models are described. The work is also focused on certain indicators used in global rankings by experts worldwide. In the 21st century, it is no longer enough to employ the hard power methods as it is advisable to use the soft power ones, which may bring about much better results than the hard ones.
Topic:: Diplomacy, International Cooperation, Hegemony, and Strategic Interests
Political Geography:: Russia, Europe, and Latvia

98. Integrated Space Situational Awareness Systems: SDA and SSA – Advantages and Limitations

Author:: Malgorzata Polkowska
Publication Date:: 01-2021
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: SDA (Space Domain Awareness) and SSA (Space Situational Awareness – SSA) have been defined as comprehensive knowledge of space objects and the ability to track, understand, and predict their future location. The purpose of the article is to present SSA initiatives to protect space systems, which are now recognized as fundamental assets of the sustainable development of each country. The destruction of even a part of the space infrastructure can have severe consequences for the security of citizens and economic activity. These systems assume the combination of all data obtained by various entities operating in space and Earth to create a common database. The SSA system was created based on the US military programme SDA (Space Domain Awareness); SSA and SDA are almost similar, but SDA is a new term replacing SSA, which existed previously. SDA is a better and improved SSA. Increasingly, the SSA programme is part of national and EU space strategies, but it is not yet possible to include it in international space law.
Topic:: International Cooperation, International Law, European Union, and Space
Political Geography:: Europe

99. Public Security and Public Order – Conceptual and Institutional Scope

Author:: Janusz Gierszewski and Andrzej Pieczywok
Publication Date:: 01-2021
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The publication aims to analyze public security and public order in conceptual and institutional terms as an analytical category of security sciences. The legislator defines neither public security nor public order. So far, they have been treated mainly as categories of administrative law. It is therefore important to assign them analytical content in the new scientific discipline. The research results allowed for the presentation of the thesis that public security and public order are mainly connected with protection against pathological phenomena occurring in the public space, which are minimized by institutions established to ensure it. These categories should constitute the research field (subject) of the security sciences. The research problem formulated in the form of the question: How are public security and public order treated in definitional and institutional terms? The problem was solved based on a critical analysis of the literature. The paper uses theoretical research methods, including analysis of literature and phenomena occurring in society and inference – as a cognitive factor of the subject of analysis. A critical analysis of the literature on this issue played a large role in the cognitive process.
Topic:: Security, Political Theory, Public Policy, and Social Order
Political Geography:: Global Focus

100. What Is Drawing Xi’s China and Lukashenko’s Belarus Closer?

Author:: Solomiya Kharchuk
Publication Date:: 01-2021
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: What are the primary drivers of the relationship between Xi’s China and Lukashenko’s Belarus? The present research paper uses the historical process-tracing method to provide an answer to this question. Furthermore, it uses quantitative data analysis regarding the economic intercourse between Belarus and China. It examines whether China’s opposition regarding the unipolar American-led world order and Belarus’s security concerns are the primary drivers of the relationship between Minsk and Beijing. The present article concludes that the congruence of beliefs and Minsk’s desire to ensure survival are drawing the two countries closer together. China’s new strategy encompasses Beijing’s increasing participation in world affairs. China opposes the world order led by a single hegemon, the United States of America. In the interim, Belarus, a relatively weak state insignificant in the global balance of power, shares Beijing’s beliefs about the desired nature of the contemporary world order. However, the Belarusian economy’s condition, which relies heavily on external funding, does not allow the economic cooperation between Minsk and Beijing to thrive. China gradually increases its engagement with Belarus, yet it obscures its ambitions, for Minsk lies in Moscow’s sphere of influence.
Topic:: International Cooperation, International Trade and Finance, Infrastructure, Hegemony, and Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)
Political Geography:: China and Asia

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