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61. Bohlen’s Dictum: First, Be There

Author:
Thomas E. McNamara
Publication Date:
02-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
American Diplomacy
Institution:
American Diplomacy
Abstract:
On my first foreign service posting in Paris, my boss, Ambassador Charles Bohlen, said that the diplomatic service required many skills, but the most important one was “being there when something happens.” Later, working on Vietnam in the embassy’s political section, I learned that Bohlen’s Dictum was true.
Topic:
Diplomacy, History, and Memoir
Political Geography:
France, Vietnam, and United States of America

62. What You Can Learn Standing on a Street Corner

Author:
Raymond F. Smith
Publication Date:
11-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
American Diplomacy
Institution:
American Diplomacy
Abstract:
I arrived in Moscow in late August 1988 to begin a three-year assignment heading the US embassy’s political section. I had learned during my pre-departure consultations in Washington that there were still diametrically opposing views among policy-makers and within the intelligence community about whether the reform program that Mikhail Gorbachev had begun was meaningful. The negative view held that the reforms were intended merely to make the Soviet system operate more efficiently and that, if successful, the US would be faced with an equally hostile, but even more dangerous adversary. One of my key objectives was for the embassy’s political reporting to have meaningful impact on this debate.
Topic:
Diplomacy, Reform, Memoir, and Soviet Union
Political Geography:
Russia, Eurasia, North America, and United States of America

63. Iran: A Report on the DACOR Bacon Foundation’s 2025 Annual Conference

Author:
Keith McCormick
Publication Date:
11-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
American Diplomacy
Institution:
American Diplomacy
Abstract:
The DACOR Bacon House Foundation’s 2025 Annual Conference, held on September 12, focused on Iran. The conference brought together academics, former diplomats, and policy activists to analyze the new situation facing Iran in the Middle East after a string of military setbacks, and the prospects for diplomacy with the United States. A list of participants is appended to this article.
Topic:
Foreign Policy, Demographics, Diplomacy, Environment, Human Rights, Sanctions, and Ideology
Political Geography:
Iran, Middle East, and United States of America

64. History Matters

Author:
Robert Hunter
Publication Date:
11-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
American Diplomacy
Institution:
American Diplomacy
Abstract:
History matters. So does ignoring it. These truisms play a major role in the mess that US foreign policy is in now. Americans’ playing down of history and related critical analysis began late in the Cold War. Indeed, by then, basic strategic thinking that was needed to manage the balance of terror with the Soviet Union had long since been done.
Topic:
Foreign Policy, Cold War, Diplomacy, History, and Soviet Union
Political Geography:
North America and United States of America

65. Funding in the Shadow of Conflict: AIPAC’s Financial Influence on US Congress Post-2023 Israel-Hamas War

Author:
Ömer Naim Küçük
Publication Date:
06-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Turkish Journal of Middle Eastern Studies
Institution:
Sakarya University (SAU)
Abstract:
The American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC) has been a key player in mobilizing support for Israel’s foreign policy within the US Congress, especially during regional conflicts. While studies have examined the influence of the pro-Israeli lobbies’ donations on US policymakers, the strategic allocation of these funds remains less explored. This study addresses that gap by analyzing factors that influenced variations in AIPAC donations to US Congress members following the 2023 Israel-Hamas war. The findings reveal two main determinants: Congress members' sponsorship of pro-Israel bills and the electoral competition in their constituencies. Those actively supporting pro-Israel legislation receive more financial contributions, indicating a link between legislative support and financial incentives. Additionally, members facing strong electoral competition attract more donations, suggesting AIPAC’s targeted investment in politically secure candidates. This research highlights how the Israeli lobby strategically uses financial contributions to shape US foreign policy, particularly in the context of Israel's military engagements.
Topic:
Foreign Policy, Elections, Lobbying, Congress, Foreign Influence, 2023 Gaza War, and AIPAC
Political Geography:
Israel, Palestine, Gaza, North America, and United States of America

66. Electoral Dynamics in post-2003 Iraq: Systemic Reforms, Security Challenges, and External Influence

Author:
Fatih Oğuzhan İpek
Publication Date:
06-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Turkish Journal of Middle Eastern Studies
Institution:
Sakarya University (SAU)
Abstract:
Since the overthrow of Saddam Hussein in 2003, Iraq’s political trajectory has been shaped by systemic reforms, security challenges, and external interventions. Parliamentary elections serve as a key measure of Iraq’s democratic governance, revealing persistent issues such as electoral system debates, pre-election violence, political fragmentation, and foreign influence from actors like the US and Iran. Low voter turnout, weak election security, and recurring allegations of fraud have further eroded public trust. The protracted government formation process, driven by sectarian divisions and external meddling, has reinforced political instability. This study examines these patterns by using the process tracing method to provide a comprehensive understanding of Iraq’s electoral landscape and its broader implications for governance. The election process is divided into three timelines and analyzed before, during, and after the elections. Drawing on news and reports on Iraq as well as speeches by Iraqi figures, the study argues that seven patterns embedded in systemic reforms, security challenges, and external interventions have overwhelmed Iraq’s electoral processes and democratic governance since 2003.
Topic:
Security, Reform, Elections, Domestic Politics, Parliament, and Ali al-Sistani
Political Geography:
Iraq, Middle East, and United States of America

67. “Do Not Come”: The US Root Causes Strategy and the Co-optation of the Right to Stay

Author:
Jesús M. de la Torre, Brenda Peralta, and Karla Rivas
Publication Date:
03-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Journal on Migration and Human Security
Institution:
Center for Migration Studies of New York
Abstract:
In 2021, the United States unveiled the Strategy for Addressing the Root Causes of Migration in Central America (“Root Causes Strategy” or “the Strategy”) to improve living conditions in El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala as a means to prevent future migration to the US-Mexico border. Through a combination of foreign policy tools and public-private investment, the US administration focused on enhancing economic, security, and governance conditions in the region. Although the Root Causes Strategy has received scrutiny in light of broader research on policies to address the root causes of migration, more attention is needed from the perspective of communities that these strategies target. Therefore, this article assesses the Root Causes Strategy’s alignment with Northern Central American communities’ plans to ensure their right to stay and thrive. It explores three areas of inquiry: the Strategy’s provision of formal engagement and participation mechanisms for local communities; the Strategy’s alignment with local communities’ priorities to ensure their right to stay; and the Strategy’s respect for local communities’ right to migrate in relation to their right to stay according to local projects of thriving. Through critical policy analysis, relying on primary governmental sources and secondary sources on the lived experience of communities in the region, the article argues that the Root Causes Strategy co-opted communities’ right to stay for three reasons. First, Northern Central American communities’ notions of their right to stay were sidelined. Communities did not have a formal role in the design and implementation of the Strategy, which lacked transparency and accountability mechanisms. Second, the Root Causes Strategy did not align its tools with communities’ notions of thriving. Private investments lacked sufficient labor, environmental and human rights protection, and oversight mechanisms to ensure they would not result in more displacement. Funding structures and processes failed to significantly expand access by local communities in support of grass-roots community projects. The US targeted sanctions for human rights violations and corruption followed communities’ cues in some countries and occasions while neglecting them in others. Third, the United States used its root causes policy to justify a restricted notion of the right to migrate. The US administration utilized its root causes policy and the widening of some insufficient legal migration pathways to justify and advance US border externalization policies and limit access to asylum at the US-Mexico border. The paper concludes with policy recommendations for the US administration, the US Congress, and civil society in Central America, Mexico, and the United States. It recommends delinking root causes of migration strategies from the goal of reducing migration to the donor country and foregrounding communities’ participation and perspectives before, during, and after the implementation of root causes policies.
Topic:
Foreign Policy, Development, Investment, and Immigration Policy
Political Geography:
Central America, North America, Honduras, Guatemala, El Salvador, and United States of America

68. The Gendered Impact of In-State Tuition Policies on Undocumented Immigrants’ College Enrollment, Graduation, and Employment

Author:
Susan Averett, Cynthia Bansak, Grace Condon, and Eva Dziadula
Publication Date:
03-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Journal on Migration and Human Security
Institution:
Center for Migration Studies of New York
Abstract:
Assessing the impact of policies offering in-state tuition and financial aid to undocumented immigrant youth is highly pertinent from a policy perspective. Eligible immigrants arrived as children and the United States is often the only home they have ever known. Without the right to stay or a path to citizenship, they cannot achieve their full potential as productive members of society. Policies improving access to higher education have the potential to elevate their social mobility and amplify economic contributions by improving job prospects and bolstering tax revenues. Since 2001, roughly half of the U.S. states have expanded in-state college tuition benefits to undocumented immigrants. Around one-third of states have also provided financial aid; yet approximately one-tenth have imposed heightened barriers to accessing higher education. While early studies found an increase in enrollment in states with in-state tuition policies, recent studies accounting for additional state policies found no impact on enrollment. These results mask varying impacts based on gender and marital status. We assess these policies, control for Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA), and analyze the impact of in-state tuition on college enrollment, graduation rates, employment, and self-employment. Our analysis relies on data from the 2005 to 2019 American Community Survey. To identify individuals who are the most likely to be undocumented and affected by the policy, we focus on noncitizen Hispanic youth, excluding those likely authorized (e.g., licensed professionals, veterans, and refugees). That said, we are assuming that state policies are the same for all undocumented residents, not just the Hispanics in our sample. Our findings are as follows:
Topic:
Education, Employment, Higher Education, Undocumented Population, and Gender
Political Geography:
North America and United States of America

69. Migrant Deaths in California’s Borderlands, 2018–2023

Author:
Marni LaFleur, Kat On, and Daniel Martínez
Publication Date:
06-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Journal on Migration and Human Security
Institution:
Center for Migration Studies of New York
Abstract:
We examine the deaths of undocumented migrants in southern California (i.e., San Diego and Imperial counties) for fiscal years (FYs) 2018–2023 using data obtained from the San Diego County Medical Examiner’s Office (SDCMEO) and Imperial County Coroner’s Office (ICCO). We recorded 314 deaths of undocumented migrants, with 157 in San Diego County (SDC) and 157 in Imperial County (IC). We describe trend fluctuations in migrant deaths and both the overall and county-specific proportions as they relate to causes of death and demographic characteristics (biological sex and age at death). Additionally, to capture the potential effects of the 2019 border wall expansion and COVID-19 pandemic on migrant deaths, we examined differences in these factors between two periods: FY 2018–2019 and FY 2020–2023. We conclude by comparing migrant deaths reported by the medicolegal authorities to estimates published by US Customs and Border Protection’s (CBP) Border Patrol for southern California. From 2018 to 2020, there were approximately 30 known migrant fatalities annually in California. This increased to about 88 deaths per year in 2021 and 2022 before dropping to 50 in 2023. Across the study period, the leading causes of death were drowning (35.4 percent), environmental exposure (23.6 percent), and blunt force trauma (16.9 percent), with the latter cause being largely associated with falls from the border wall. However, we found significant differences between SDC and IC. For instance, 51.6 percent of migrant deaths in IC were due to drowning, compared to 19.1 percent in SDC. Conversely, 21.7 percent of deaths in SDC were due to blunt force trauma, while just 12.1 percent of deaths in IC occurred in this manner. Overall, we found that 75.2 percent of decedents were male, 20.4 percent were female, and 4.5 percent were of unknown sex. Among cases in which a precise age at death was listed, the average age was 34.6 years. Nevertheless, sex and age differed by county in that SDC had a higher proportion of female decedents (28 percent in SDC vs. 12.7 percent in IC) and a higher average age at death (SDC x¯ = 36.8 vs. IC x¯ = 32.0). We also found significant differences between the two periods examined. Perhaps most striking, deaths due to blunt force trauma increased from 3.4 percent of cases in FY 2018–2019 to 19.9 percent of cases in FY 2020–2023. Decedent characteristics also appear to have changed across time. The share of male decedents decreased from 84.5 percent to 73.0 percent, while the share of females increased from 5.2 percent to 23.8 percent between the two periods, while the proportion of decedents ages 50 to 64 years increased significantly (from 4.7 percent to 12.7 percent). Finally, for FYs 2018–2022, CBP reported 25.6 percent fewer migrant deaths than medicolegal authorities in southern California. High numbers of migrant deaths in 2021 and 2022 can be attributed to circumstances during and following the COVID-19 pandemic, including a Trump Administration policy aimed at blocking access to the US asylum system. The expansion of the border wall during the Trump era may also explain increased migrant mortality in 2021 and 2022. Decreases in deaths in California in 2023 may be because of a novel entry location in the San Judas Break or result from a shift in migration trends toward other border states (i.e., Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas). County differences in drowning and blunt force trauma deaths were likely due to the presence of the All-American Canal in IC (drowning), and greater coverage of the pedestrian border wall in SDC (blunt force trauma), respectively. Although speculatory, the higher percentage of female decedents and older age of decedents in SDC may be because these vulnerable individuals perceive San Diego to be a safer route. Changes between FYs 2018–2019 and FYs 2020–2023 in blunt force trauma deaths (3.4 percent to 19.9 percent) are a result of falls from the newly expanded and constructed border wall. We suggest that after more than 30 years of implementation, the United States should eliminate the use of “deterrence” strategies to prevent further and unnecessary loss of life. Additionally, the following actions could reduce migrant mortality in California: installing buoys or other anti-drowning devices in the All-American Canal, making potentially life-saving resources (e.g., blankets and water) available on known migrant routes, and reducing the height of or removing the border barrier. We call for both CBP and medicolegal authorities to provide disaggregated data on migrant fatalities, which would facilitate an accurate accounting these deaths, increase understanding of where and why deaths occur, and therefore be used to support policy changes.
Topic:
Borders, Undocumented Population, Death, Migrants, and Forensics
Political Geography:
California, Mexico, and United States of America

70. Enforced Disappearance as a Border Management Tool: The Case of Border Patrol Detentions of Immigrant and Asylum-Seeking Families in the United States

Author:
Diego F. Leal and Natalie L. Cadwalader
Publication Date:
06-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Journal on Migration and Human Security
Institution:
Center for Migration Studies of New York
Abstract:
This study examines the experiences of international migrants and asylum-seeker families recently released from the custody of the United States Border Patrol (BP) to assess their ability to make phone calls while in BP detention. The focus on phone access is critical to determining whether respondents experience enforced disappearance under international law, given that BP custody is usually incommunicado. To determine whether some BP detainees experience enforced disappearance in custody, authors collected and analyzed data from 117 respondents using a novel questionnaire. Respondents were heads of families. These families consisted of at least one adult and at least one minor child who were released to a non-profit short-term shelter in the United States (U.S.). Findings show that 78 percent of the respondents who were in BP custody experienced an enforced disappearance because they were not able to make phone calls and there was no reliable publicly accessible locator system to otherwise locate them. While this study provides critical context to how one distinct group of individuals released from BP custody (i.e., families released into the U.S.) experienced enforced disappearance, we note the importance of future studies that assess the situation of additional groups, including single adults released from BP into the U.S. and groups and individuals forced back (typically) to Mexico upon release from BP custody. We discuss policy recommendations to mitigate and prevent continued enforced disappearances in BP custody and to prevent additional human rights violations that are facilitated by enforced disappearance, including the right to access counsel, the right to due process, the right to seek asylum, the right of non-refoulment, and that may constitute a grave threat to the right to life.
Topic:
Asylum, Detention, Enforced Disappearance, and Border Patrol
Political Geography:
North America and United States of America