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Begin New Search Political Geography Global Focus Author Wolfgang Maennig Publication Year within 25 Years

1. Centralization in National High-Performance Sports Systems: Reasons, Processes, Dimensions, Characteristics, and Open Questions

Author:
Wolfgang Maennig
Publication Date:
01-2023
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
Centralization provides for the bundling of tasks that are relevant to the achievement of an institution's goals. Centralization is discussed in almost all areas of life: For example, in politics (more centralized structures in France vs. more decentralized structures in Germany), in economics (centrally planned organization as in the former COMECON-Countries), decentralized decision-making at the individual level in market economies), and at the corporate level. Objects of centralization can be, for example, decision-making processes, products, personnel and customer groups. In some cases, the aim is to centralize (only) certain objects, while other activities are to remain decentralized, for example. In some cases, centralization in some areas virtually necessitates decentralization in others: For example, centralization by product usually leads to decentralization by sales area. Synergy effects, specialization advantages and, ultimately, cost degression effects are cited as benefits or advantages of more centralization; duplication of work and infrastructure can be avoided. Decision-making processes can be accelerated and simplified – subordinate or geographically distant units do not participate in the decision-making process. Unified concepts and strategies can be better enforced. “Density effects" must also be taken into account: There often are positive spill-over effects between people with related activities, for example, due to imitation and learning effects, but also due to the exchange of experience, which leads to an increase in the productivity of those involved. However, the decentralization tendencies that have emerged as a result of the Corona pandemic, for example through homeworking, partly question this finding. One of the disadvantages of centralization is that large centralized companies have high demands on information and decision-making systems because the experience, problems and ideas for solutions that arise decentrally have to reach the decisionmakers and therefore often (but not always) react more slowly to external changes. Less consideration may be given to regional peculiarities. Due to the standardization usually associated with centralization the scope for adaptation to specific circumstances may be lost. Centralization can increase the distance of decision-makers from "grassroots" concerns. The non-central units can suffer from devaluation, delegitimization, and demotivation, possibly associated with a long-term decrease of activities. The restricted competition of ideas can lead to a long-term decline in competitiveness, since the reduced competencies of the decentralized employees can inhibit their individual performance development. Centralization leads to a greater burden on central decisionmakers because the quantity and complexity of decisions increase. Individuals affected by centralization (in a different location) may experience family relocation problems and additional financial problems. The Corona pandemic and the current China discussion have brought additional arguments into the discussion with contagion risks for (too) many and (too) strong dependencies/blackmail possibilities on centralized procurement. And Ukraine's energy supply, which is based on relatively few large nuclear power plants, illustrates the possible increased susceptibility of certain centralized structures to crises.
Topic:
Sports, Economic Policy, Olympics, and Centralization
Political Geography:
Europe, Germany, and Global Focus

2. News and Noise in Crime Politics: The Role of Announcements and Risk Attitudes

Author:
Wolfgang Maennig and Stefan Wilhelm
Publication Date:
08-2022
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
We examine the short- and medium-term effects of announcements of changes in anti-crime policies in the distant future (news shocks) and provide a first extension of the analysis to cases where the announced policy changes may not be realized in the end (noise shocks). We further innovate by analyzing the effects of policy changes that increase the variance while holding the expected values of policy instruments constant. We confirm that news shocks can bring about immediate changes in delinquency. However, announcements of tighter anti-crime policies may even increase delinquent activities, at least temporarily. In the case of noise shocks, we observe persistent reactions of potential offenders, indicating that a credible communication strategy may generate an impact on crime politics. Finally, increasing the variance of policy instruments without changing the mean expected detection rate may have similar effects.
Topic:
Crime, Law Enforcement, Economic Policy, Risk, and Attitudes
Political Geography:
Global Focus

3. Heterogeneous consumer preferences for product quality and uncertainty

Author:
Wolfgang Maennig and Steffen Mueller
Publication Date:
12-2021
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
We provide evidence for heterogeneous consumer preferences for product quality and game outcome uncertainty (GOU) in Major League Baseball. Using attendance data from 2013 to 2019, we explore func-tional data clustering techniques to detect common patterns in predictive margins of team-specific win-ning probability. As a central result, we identify five groups of teams with similar GOU effects. However, only a few teams’ fans show GOU preferences that resemble the typical hump-shape that is postulated by the uncertainty of outcome hypothesis; the largest cluster is comprised of teams with fans whose at-tendance behavior is relatively insensitive to differences in GOU.
Topic:
Economics, Data, Consumer Behavior, and Uncertainty
Political Geography:
Global Focus

4. Consumer and employer discrimination in professional sports markets – New evidence from Major League Baseball

Author:
Wolfgang Maennig and Steffen Mueller
Publication Date:
12-2021
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
We investigate the relationship between consumer discrimination, racial matching strategies, and employer discrimination in Major League Baseball (MLB) from 1985 to 2016. To this end, we assess the extent to which both fan attendance and team performance respond to changes in teams’ and their local market areas’ racial compositions. We innovate by using a significantly enhanced data basis with individual player data that we derive from combining web scraping and using facial recognition techniques to identify player race and using County-level Census data instead of Metropolitan Statistical Area data. We find that fans in both MLB Leagues developed a taste for racial diversity in the late 1980s; since the 2000s, discrimination starts to increase again. However, this discrimination is not fully rationalizing the performance gap across athletes of different race and ethnicity; employer discrimination is not primarily driven by fans’ racial preferences.
Topic:
Economics, Race, Employment, Sports, Ethnicity, Discrimination, Consumer Behavior, Facial Recognition, and Baseball
Political Geography:
Global Focus

5. Yellow Cards and Suspension by Choice: Determinants and Asymmetries

Author:
Wolfgang Maennig and Franziska K. Kruse
Publication Date:
05-2019
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
This study demonstrates that psycho-economic determinants are significant in the awarding of yellow cards in a soccer match. This is the first multivariate analysis of the number of yellow cards given to a team in a match, and the study concludes that the characteristics of the referee, a home match effect, a derby match effect, and whether a team wins are crucial. The absolute point difference in relation to the current opponent can play a role as well. This is also the first work to analyze the probability of a team’s player collecting his fifth yellow card. We find that the probability is not determined by the characteristics of the referee but by whether a team wins, by whether a team plays at its home pitch and by the quality of the teams participating in the subsequent matches. Soccer players tend to collect their fifth yellow card and their suspension by choice when playing against a better opponent in the next match. For teams in the lower range, the opponent after next plays a role as well.
Topic:
Economics, Sports, and Psychology
Political Geography:
Global Focus

6. The future development of world records

Author:
Wolfgang Maennig and Franziska K. Kruse
Publication Date:
10-2017
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
We conduct an innovative analysis of sporting world records by a) using economic instead of sporting determinants and b) by using multivariate stochastic frontier functions. Using data from 48 different disciplines between 1970 and 2014, we show that world records are close to full efficiency and therefore actual athletic frontiers. Forecasts including economic determinants imply that the dynamics of world records largely depend on the dynamics of the frontiers and their driving forces, i.e., socio-economic developments.
Topic:
Economics, Sports, and Socioeconomics
Political Geography:
Global Focus

7. Governance in Sports Organizations

Author:
Wolfgang Maennig
Publication Date:
08-2017
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
With the revelation of the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) corruption scandal in May 2015, the integrity and thus the general configuration of (international) sports organizations were publicly contested. The principle of moral behavior in international sports organizations (Arnold, 1994) was clearly violated and the high (self) esteem of sports suffered. The accusations of corruption regarding the Men’s FIFA World Cups1 (BBC, 2015) as well as the bribing scandals during the Olympic bidding processes2 stained the integrity of sports. Sport values, also condensed in the concept of “Olympic spirit” (or “Olympism” (Adi, 2014)), are based on the philosophy that best performances (should) lead to best results and rewards. Sport serves as a symbol for respect, self-discipline, health and deserved rewards as a result of outstanding athletic achievements. The corruption scandals, which include the complete value chain of sports, threaten this philosophy and show why sports organizations require special rules for their governance. This article deals with the general concept of (good) governance in sports organizations, explaining its required particularities through a look at its principles, existing challenges and issues that have yet to be resolved. It will also give an overview of which obstacles need to be taken into account for the implementation of good governance. Furthermore, it lays out some potential ideas for enhanced good governance through the example of mega-events such as the Olympic Games.
Topic:
Economics, Governance, Sports, and Olympics
Political Geography:
Global Focus

8. Major Sports Events: Economic Impact

Author:
Wolfgang Maennig
Publication Date:
06-2017
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
Economic impact has developed into one of the most cited and used arguments to bid for major events. Ex ante studies on the economic impact, which analyze regional income and employment impacts, are usually required by local chamberlains or regional financing authorities and occasionally are a basis for votes in the relevant assemblies, parliaments or public referenda. Occasionally, economic impact studies are required by law as proof of the efficient allocation of public resources. However, in most cases, economic impacts are part of public relations, attempting to convince the media and relevant stakeholders that the (planned) major event is beneficial for the local, regional or national economy and may, at least to a considerable degree, finance itself by the induced tax increases.
Topic:
Economics, Sports, Media, Public Relations, Economic Development, and Stakeholders
Political Geography:
Global Focus

9. Public Referenda and Public Opinion on Olympic Games

Author:
Wolfgang Maennig
Publication Date:
06-2017
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
Public referenda on Olympic bids have drawn considerable interest in the recent past, also because – with few exceptions – the voters decided against the Olympic ambitions of the local governments and/or local bid committees. For example, within the last five years before the finalizing of this text, voters in Vienna and Hamburg decided against bids for Olympic Summer Games in 2028 and 2024, respectively. Ambitions for Olympic Winter Games have been ended by referenda in Graubünden 2026 (Switzerland), Munich 2022 (Germany), St. Moritz / Davos / Graubünden 2022, and Krakow 2022 (Poland). Table 1 presents the data of the history of Olympic referenda and clarifies that Olympic referenda are by no means an innovation of recent times: The oldest reported referenda are from the 1960´s. All public referenda were held on Olympic Winter Games, with the exception of the two Summer Games referenda for Vienna 2024 and Hamburg 2024 mentioned above. There was a balance between positive and negative referenda for Olympic Games bids up to the 1970s. Since the 1980s, the number of negative referenda has clearly outperformed the number of positive referenda.
Topic:
Economics, Sports, Olympics, Voting, and Referendum
Political Geography:
Global Focus

10. Which countries bid for the Olympic Games? Economic, political, and social factors and chances of winning

Author:
Wolfgang Maennig and Christopher Vierhaus
Publication Date:
04-2016
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
This contribution analyzes 132 factors on their potential to discriminate countries bidding for hosting the Olympic Games from non-bidding countries. Our binary, clustered model using generalized estimating equations (GEE) shows that countries recording long-term economic growth and pursuing a liberalization and globalization policy will consider an Olympic bid. In addition, countries with an urban population above 10 million, with stable election results and an improvement in health standards as well as more attractive tourism destinations are more likely to bid for the Olympic Games. Finally, the bid decision is shaped by experience in hosting major sports events, a country and regional rotation, persistence and climatic conditions.
Topic:
Economics, Globalization, Sports, Economic Growth, and Olympics
Political Geography:
Global Focus

11. Who Wins Olympic Bids?

Author:
Wolfgang Maennig and Christopher Vierhaus
Publication Date:
10-2015
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
The prospect of hosting the Olympic Games is attractive to many cities around the world. This article examines 147 variables’ potential to discriminate successful from unsuccessful Olympic bids. Our stepwise, rank-ordered logistic regression model includes 10 determinants supporting the contention that economic, political and sports/Olympic factors are important for winning the host city election. IOC members favor cities if more than 2/3 of the population support the bid, but disfavor bidding cities of fewer than 2.5 million inhabitants and bids lacking a sufficient number of existing stadiums. Hosts are characterized by larger markets and higher medium-term growth economies. Olympic bids that follow a political liberalization are rewarded with additional votes. Moreover, successful bids are more experienced at hosting and have no dispute with the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Finally, we observe “it is the country’s turn” election behavior – countries that have not hosted the Olympics for a long period are preferred.
Topic:
Elections, Sports, Olympics, and Bids
Political Geography:
Global Focus

12. Ensuring good governance and preventing corruption in the planning of major sporting events – open issues

Author:
Wolfgang Maennig
Publication Date:
07-2015
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
International sports will have to strengthen their efforts to exclude persons with morals in conflict with their sports. IOC and FIFA should mirror their top ambitions in athletic and financial areas by similarly leading ambitions to serve human mankind more generally. To encounter critiques that the organizing of major sporting events are „elitist actions“ IOC and FIFA should declare ex-ante referenda as a precondition for bidding. In order to reduce the funds available for corruption, the role of public finance in major sporting events should be overthought. At least broadcasters under public law public should be excluded from the bidding for TV. FIFA and other sporting federations should make public their payments to member federations etc and the underlying decision criteria.
Topic:
Corruption, Governance, Sports, Referendum, FIFA, and Public Finance
Political Geography:
Global Focus

13. News shocks in the data: Olympic Games and their macroeconomic effects – Reply

Author:
Viktoria Langer, Wolfgang Maennig, and Felix J. Richter
Publication Date:
10-2015
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
Recent analyses relate increases in the growth rate of countries to anticipation effects caused by bidding for the Olympic Games, so called news shocks. We argue that these findings should be interpreted cautiously. First, these analyses may suffer from an omitted variable bias because they neglect key determinants of economic growth. Second, these analyses compare the bidders for the Olympic Games to all other countries in the world, which constitutes a comparison between groups that show large differences in their structural characteristics. We show that including established determinants of economic growth and comparing the bidders to a suitable control group may lead to a complete disappearance of the anticipated economic effects of Olympic Games.
Topic:
GDP, Sports, Economic Growth, Olympics, and Macroeconomics
Political Geography:
Global Focus

14. News shocks in the data: Olympic Games and their macroeconomic effects – Reply

Author:
Viktoria Langer, Wolfgang Maennig, and Felix J. Richter
Publication Date:
10-2015
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
Recent analyses relate increases in the growth rate of countries to anticipation effects caused by bidding for the Olympic Games, so called news shocks. We argue that these findings should be interpreted cautiously. First, these analyses may suffer from an omitted variable bias because they neglect key determinants of economic growth. Second, these analyses compare the bidders for the Olympic Games to all other countries in the world, which constitutes a comparison between groups that show large differences in their structural characteristics. We show that including established determinants of economic growth and comparing the bidders to a suitable control group may lead to a complete disappearance of the anticipated economic effects of Olympic Games.
Topic:
Economics and Macroeconomics
Political Geography:
Global Focus

15. Rhythms and Cycles in Happiness

Author:
Wolfgang Maennig, Malte Steenbeck, and Markus Wilhelm
Publication Date:
06-2013
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
This study analyses time-dependent rhythms in happiness in three aspects. We show that the Sunday neurosis exists exclusively for men with a medium level of education and both men and women with high levels of education. Men with high levels of education may even experience a weekend neurosis. This study is the first to test for intra-monthly rhythms and to demonstrate that men with a lower educational background may suffer from negative effects on happiness towards the end of the month, potentially due to liquidity problems. The study is also the first to demonstrate that – even when controlling for health and income effects – happiness exhibits seasonal effects over the annual period, depending on gender and education.
Topic:
Economics, Happiness, and Neurosis
Political Geography:
Global Focus

16. Exports and Olympic Games: Is there a Signal Effect?

Author:
Wolfgang Maennig and Felix J. Richter
Publication Date:
01-2012
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
Rose & Spiegel (2011) find that Olympic Games host countries experience significant positive, lasting effects on exports. They interpret their results as an indication that countries use the hosting of such events to signal openness and competitiveness. We challenge these empirical findings on the grounds that a comparison of structurally different and non-matching groups of countries might suffer from a selection bias. We demonstrate that with an appropriate matching and treatment methodology, the significant Olympic effect disappears.
Topic:
Economics, International Trade and Finance, Olympics, and Exports
Political Geography:
Global Focus

17. Becoming (Un)employed and Life Satisfaction: Asymmetric Effects and Potential Omitted Variable Bias in Empirical Happiness Studies

Author:
Wolfgang Maennig and Markus Wilhelm
Publication Date:
12-2011
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
Becoming unemployed has negative effects on life satisfaction; a transition from unemployment to employment, however, has stronger positive effects in absolute terms. The asymmetry of the non-pecuniary effect indicates a potential “omitted variable bias” in previous empirical happiness studies.
Topic:
Economics, Labor Issues, Employment, Unemployment, and Happiness
Political Geography:
Global Focus

18. The 2010 World Cup High-Frequency Data Economics: Effects on International Awareness and (Self-Defeating) Tourism

Author:
Stan Du Plessis and Wolfgang Maennig
Publication Date:
04-2010
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
Without a doubt, the 2010 World Cup of soccer in South Africa was a great experience for both soccer fans, who enjoyed a safe and efficiently-run tournament, and their South African hosts. The sporting and social spectacle was broadcast around the world and focused unprecedented media attention on South Africa. Despite the manifest success of the tournament, its short-term effects on international tourism, which are the nucleus of all other short-term positive effects on economic variables such as employment, income and taxes, have turned out to be of a much smaller magnitude than expected or even as reported during the tournament. This may be attributable to self-defeating prophecy effects. This study is a warning against the abuse of economic impact studies, especially those pertaining to major sporting events. It is also a call to use the “correct” arguments of measurable awareness effects and potential long-term development effects in discussing major sporting events. Methodologically, this study is innovative in its economic analysis of major sporting events because it (i) uses data from social networks and (ii) uses high-frequency daily data on tourism.
Topic:
Economics, Tourism, Sports, World Cup, Facebook, Social Networks, FIFA, and Google
Political Geography:
Africa, South Africa, and Global Focus

19. Do Men Slow Down Faster than Women?

Author:
Wolfgang Maennig and Michael Stobernack
Publication Date:
09-2010
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
This paper is the first test of differences between age-related reductions in the performance of men and women. The assumption that men age faster is obvious, because men's life expectancy is generally lower. In addition to other studies on age-related reduction in human performance, this paper examines the data taken from competitions on rowing machines, which have been standardized worldwide and which are hardly affected by weather or temperature. A third innovation is that this study looks for any potential ageing processes specific to gender and physique. Fourth, fractional polynomials have been added to the testing methodology. Contrary to intuition, we find evidence that women are affected by faster age-related reductions in performance.
Topic:
Economics, Labor Issues, Women, Aging, Men, and Gender
Political Geography:
Global Focus

20. How to Win the Olympic Games - The Empirics of Key Success Factors of Olympic Bids

Author:
Arne Feddersen and Wolfgang Maennig
Publication Date:
09-2007
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
This paper examines the probability of the success of city bid campaigns on the basis of quantified determinants for a total of 48 bids for the Summer Olympic Games between 1992 and 2012. Using a model comprising the distance of sporting venues from the Olympic Village, local temperatures and unemployment rates, we can correctly predict the decision for 100% of failed bids and 50% of successful bids.
Topic:
Economics, Sports, Olympics, and Bids
Political Geography:
Global Focus

21. Mega-Sporting Events as Experience Goods

Author:
Malte Heyne, Wolfgang Maennig, and Bernd Suessmuth
Publication Date:
01-2007
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
This paper tests the hypothesis that a nation’s hosting of a mega-sporting event is an experience good for its residents. Applying data from an ex-ante and ex-post query based on contingent valuation methods, we use the Soccer World Cup 2006 as a natural experiment. The significant ex-post increase in valuation is shown to be due to adventitious citizens requiring an involving experience, rather than to an updating of a-prior assessment.
Topic:
Economics, Sports, World Cup, Cotingent Valuation Method, and Experience Goods
Political Geography:
Global Focus

22. Arenas vs. Multifunctional Stadia – Which Do Spectators Prefer?

Author:
Arne Feddersen and Wolfgang Maennig
Publication Date:
09-2007
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
Large sports stadia construction follows two different general concepts: (1) Mono-functional arenas which are specially suited for one sport exclusively and which are characterised by the absence of an athletic track. (2) Multifunctional sports stadia which can be used for different sporting or cultural events. Officials of clubs often argue that the atmosphere in an arena is significantly better than that of a multipurpose facility and that spectators prefer such an atmosphere. Estimated panel regressions with fixed effects show a significant positive effect of a mono-functional soccer stadium on spectator demand. Controlling for other demand determinants in the German professional soccer league, Bundesliga, an isolated effect of around 4,800 additional spectators a game can be found. This translates into a substantial increase of about 18.7% against the mean value of 25,602 spectators per Bundesliga game.
Topic:
Economics, Sports, Soccer, and Stadiums
Political Geography:
Global Focus

23. Stadium Architecture and regional economic development: International experience and the plans of Durban

Author:
Wolfgang Maennig
Publication Date:
01-2006
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
For the FIFA World Cup 2010, South Africa plans to invest heavily. The positive economic effects that the country is hoping for stand in contrast to almost all statistical ex-post studies. This contribution emphasises that these results, usually from research under-taken in the USA, can only be generalised to a limited degree. The density of sports venues in developed countries is so high, that the marginal effects of new stadia are necessarily limited. We also emphasise that stadium design around the world was not hitherto adequately targeted towards positive economic effects. The example of Durban and its plans for a new “iconic” stadium is used to illustrate fundamental principles of stadium design and their embedding in a re-urbanisation process that have to be undertaken in order to consciously achieve positive regional economic effects.
Topic:
Development, Economics, Sports, Architecture, World Cup, Regional Economy, and Soccer
Political Geography:
Africa, South Africa, and Global Focus

24. Trends in Competitive Balance: Is there Evidence for Growing Imbalance in Professional Sport Leagues?

Author:
Arne Feddersen and Wolfgang Maennig
Publication Date:
01-2005
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Chair for Economic Policy, University of Hamburg
Abstract:
The concept of competitive balance is a central aspect in the literature of sports economics. A popular argumentation of sport functionaries is that dominance of one or a few teams could lead to unequal incomes for the clubs, restrictions in the clubs’ ability to improve sporting performance and ultimately to a loss of attractiveness and loss of income for the league. Following this line of reasoning and alleging a negative trend in competitive sports functionaries often try to implement regulations in team sport leagues. The aim of this paper is to analyze for eight different leagues if there is such a trend existing. For an empirical test for trends in competitive balance of four European soccer leagues (ENG, ESP, GER, ITA) and four US Major Leagues (MLB, NBA, NFL, NHL), OLS regressions with a constant were carried out. For the entire observation period from 1969/70 to 2003/2004, of 48 trends ascertained, only 12 could be observed as being significantly positive (i.e. growing imbalance) with 19 significantly negative (i.e. growing balance). The remaining 17 trends were insignificantly different from zero.
Topic:
Economics, Sports, Soccer, Competitive Balance, and Sports Leagues
Political Geography:
Europe, Global Focus, and United States of America